Retailer Companies Essay Example for Free

Retailer Companies EssayAmazonAmazon is an online retailer in time there have been talks and news articles of the company planning to open a warehouse store in New York City. However being an online but retailer means the company toilet meet any customer target and offer shopping to anyone. This removes travel time, travel cost and parking costs which appeal to more than customers. This can also appeal to younger shoppers aged 16+ who are unable to drive and must pay out a large charge in travel fare. There is also a larger rile in the consumer area and they now have the ability to reach a worldwide target. Also being an online only business they can give specific and limited neglecting to their products.New LookNew look is a duplex store that usually located in an in town area. Being located in town has many advantages and disadvantages. One of the advantages to being an in town store is the easy access by both(prenominal) public and personal transport. However a disadv antage to this is the large travel costs both paying for tickets on trains or busses but also petrol and parking costs. A second advantage in the allotted sale space can be increased and the store can have a larger floor space. However receivable to this the store costs more to rent and lead meaning there are only a small amount of discounts the store is able to give.PandoraPandora is a multinational company using a multiple store which is usually located in out of town areas. Because of the area where they are placed they have a long travel time fashioning the easiest travel option the car heretofore you can travel to them on public transport but many involve changes and larger fares. However due to the travel costs the areas slightly reduce store costs and also allow free parking. This means that although travel time and cost is high it holds more appeal due to the lower prices and free parking.Best One NewsagentsBest One Newsagents is a franchised business that is based in lo callocations. The areas that these stores are in are specifically placed in accordance to the surrounding area. They will be in an area where there are many houses surrounding them so that customers have east when going to the store. Due to the fact of them being a local store they are smaller than others and are able to grapple items at cheaper prices. This appeals to the customers so that they can get bits they need without going to supermarkets and paying a higher price. eBayeBay is an online only auction site where people are able to sell unwanted items securely. This means they can sell items that people are looking for E.G a new iPad Air would usually be sold at retail price for 399 but on eBay a new but used one could be sold at up to a 90% discount and that could be a set price or they could use the auction and consumers could bid to see who will be the one to purchase the item. As this is a selling site you will need to receive the money and many use PayPal as it is a secu re way to pay the money however you can just pay cash if you are collecting the item.

Miracles provide great hope for a hurting world Essay Example for Free

Miracles bid great hope for a infliction piece EssayMiracles can provide great hope for a hurting world because they can be a last resort when every(prenominal) else fails. If someone has been diagnosed with terminal cancer and doctors have given up on them, the hope for a miracle can be the only thing that keeps them from total despair. When nature seems insufferably cruel, believe that divinity fudge can overcome nature is infinitely reassuring. Miracles also reaffirm the believers faith, thus providing hope. Miracles by their very nature are scrape that reveal Gods great nature. For example, the Bible records that when Jesus was crucified a great darkness covered the land. This miracle has been historically verified by contemporary middle-Eastern historians Thallus and Africanus. Miracles much(prenominal) as this can be used to convert large number to God and give them a sense that he cares for them, thus providing hope. Theologians such as Dr Michael browned assert that miracles are proof of Gods continued presence in this world through the Holy Spirit, and if we pray earnestly we may be able to experience a miracle.Jesus himself said, ask and it shall be given unto you. Finally, miracles point to an eternal hope beyond this world. They suggest that this world is not all there is there is another much greater world that we catch glimpses of through miracles. The miracle central to Christianity Christs resurrection can give a hurting person hope. Christ said that, In my fathers house there are many rooms, I will go to prepare a place for you. Even if they are not healed in this world, the miracle of the crucifixion gives them the hope that they can experience heaven. On the other hand, miracles may not provide hope and happiness because they are so sporadic and seemingly random. Wiles said that miracles were the work of, a capricious and arbitrary God. By this he was referring to the fact that God heals some and not others. Why doesnt God h eal all sick children, instead of a select few? This calls Gods traits into question.If he was omnibenevolent he would want to heal everyone, and if he was omnipotent he would have the power to do so. But he doesnt, so this calls his very existence into question. thereof miracles do not provide hope. Dawkins also disagrees with the premise that miracles could provide hope. He claimed that miracles were simply crimsonts that fell towards the end of the probability spectrum, and if they do occur they are Brobdingnagian luck. He believes that there is no point in raising peoples hopes for an event that statistically will never occur to them.Many believers, especially more conservative ones, would believe that miracles and wonders have mostly ceased in our time and what the hurting world really needs for hope is faith. Scholars such as Dr crowd White believe that modern churches that place far too much emphasis on needing miracles for hope are pushing people away from true, economy faith in Christ. Jesus himself chastised the people for only wanting to see signs and wonders rather than having true faith. Furthermore, miracles are not what is needed to provide hope for a hurting world. Science is.Instead of wasting time praying for individual healings, we should pour out time and energy into discovering cures and vaccines instead. Atheists such as Hawking use smallpox as an example. The human race was able to eradicate this disease through effort, intelligence and science. There was no need for divine intervention to cause hope. Overall, even if miracles are not real, what is wrong with giving desperate people a bit of hope? Nearly all nations have their own accounts of miracles which bring their people hope, it is unlikely they are all wrong.

Effects of Type 1 Diabetes on Pregnancy

Effects of causa 1 Diabetes on PregnancyIntroductionDiabetes mellitus is a serious endocrine disorder created by a deficiency or diminished effectiveness of the horm whizz insulin and is categorized into two sub-categories, cause 1 and event 2, together with the lesser known variant gestational diabetes ( shoot, 2003, pp30-32). Type 1 diabetes is position to be a patrimonialally controlled autoimmune disorder that presents in puerility and is also know as juvenile barrage diabetes or insulin dependent diabetes. Type 2 diabetes usually occurs in older, obese individuals however, this grapheme of diabetes is becoming increasingly more common among children and adolescents. Debatably, this is because of the increase in childhood obesity because of the sedentary lifestyle some children atomic number 18 adopting in todays society. There is also an hereditary predisposition to type 2 diabetes. If one or both p atomic number 18nts extradite type 2 diabetes the offspring is at an i ncreased bump of getting the condition (Rosenbloom et al, 1999, pp345). It is important to note that gestational diabetes that is a complication of gestation is different from the pre-existing diabetes in pregnancy that go out be discussed in this essay.It is thought that approximately three to five percent of pregnancies ar complicated by type 1 diabetes. During pregnancy diabetes mellitus drive out have a damaging detrimental affect on both maternal(p) and foetal health. Conversely, diabetes is affected by the physiological changes that take place during pregnancy (Bewley, 2002, pp47-48).This essay leave behind examine the effects of type 1 diabetes on a cardinal year old (Carol) that is six weeks pregnant. The essay will start by investigating the prevalence of diabetes mellitus in order to acquire a global throw of the disease. The aetiology and physiology of type 1 diabetes will then be discussed. This essay will then go on to consider the signs and symptoms of the con dition and its effects on Carol now and in the future. Next the complications of diabetes in general and during pregnancy will be discussed, considering the effects on Carol and her unborn child. The effects of type 1 diabetes on the create embryo, foetus and sire will be addressed. Finally, the hereditary link for type 1 diabetes will be considered and the essay will then be concluded.EpidemiologyDiabetes mellitus is a growing global and public health problem. The World wellness Organisation (2006, p1) estimates that the problem could escalate to an estimated three hundred one thousand thousand people by 2025. It is thought that approximately one and a half million people in the United commonwealth have diabetes mellitus. Type 1 accounts for approximately twenty percent of cases of diabetes mellitus. Type 2 diabetes accounts for more than eighty percent of cases with more than one million people diagnosed in the United Kingdom (Burden, 2003, pp30-32).The aetiology and physiology of type 1 diabetes mellitusThis section focuses on the causes of disease and the biological aspects of diabetes mellitus. As mentioned type 1 diabetes results from the complete absence of the hormone insulin that is involved in glucose metabolism. It is thought that it is an autoimmune disease in which the bodys immune system attacks and destroys the beta cells in the islets of Langerhans that atomic number 18 embedded in the tissues of the pancreas (See diagram 1).Diagram 1, this shows the islets of Langerhans that are deep embedded with the tissues of the exocrine pancreas (http//cal.man.ac.uk/student_projects/2000/mnby7lc2/pancreas.htm). Diagram 1The pancreas has two functions the exocrine cells produce digestive fluids and the endocrine cells produce hormones. It is the endocrine insulin producing beta cells that are important in the role of diabetes mellitus. The beta cells (see diagram 2) make insulin and when the bodys immune system attacks it results in the destruction of these cells. As the cells die insulin production stops and the consequences of this are impairment in function of, and damage to many of the organs in the body.Diagram 2 shows the insulin producing beta cells that are found in the islets of Langerhans (http//cal.man.ac.uk/student_projects/2000/mnby7lc2/pancreas.htm). Diagram 2It is not known exactly what triggers this immune attack, but susceptibility to the disease might be inherited. The autoimmune attack may be triggered by chemical reaction to a virus infection. The attack is thought to be carried out by the T cells of the immune system (Waugh and Grant, 2001, p234).In Diabetes mellitus there is too much glucose in the transmission line. When carbohydrates are eaten they are broken down into glucose. This carry through is known as gluconeogenesis and occurs in the liver and kidneys. The level of glucose in the blood is regulated by the by nature occurring hormone insulin. Insulin promotes transport and entry of glucose into t he bodys cell and tissues. Glucose is essential to the production of brawn within the cells and without it cellular last will occur (Tortora and Grabowski, 2003, p627).Signs and symptoms of type 1 diabetes mellitusThis section will examine the signs and symptoms that Carol would have exhibited before diagnosis and during the course of the condition. The initial clinical indication of untreated diabetes relates to elevated blood sugar levels, and loss of glucose in the urine. When there are excessive amounts of glucose in the urine, water is taken out of the body in large amounts by the process of osmosis (Waugh and Grant, 2001, p235). This results in polyuria (increased urine output) and that maneuvers to dehydration. Dehydration causes polydipsia (increased thirst) leading to increased fluid consumption. The in dexterity to utilise glucose energy eventually leads to weight loss despite excessive smart (polyphagia). Dramatic weight loss would have been a clinical sign exhibited by Carol. Some patients also complain of fatigue, nausea and vomiting. Patients with diabetes are prone to developing infections of the bladder, skin, and vaginal areas this is because hyperglycaemia can disrupt the action of phagocytes that are help to fight infection. The immune system in diabetes sufferers is suppressed and this limits the bodys ability to resist invasion by bacteria or viruses. Fluctuations in blood glucose levels can lead to blurred vision and extremely elevated glucose levels can lead to lethargy. Diabetic ketoacidosis is a serious medical condition resulting from undisciplined diabetes. Ketoacidosis is caused by lack of insulin and occurs when the body uses fat as an energy ejaculate and ketones build up in the blood. Ketoacidosis starts slowly and builds up to a life-threatening condition that can result in coma and possible death (Burden, 2003, pp30-32).Carol may have exhibited all or some of these symptoms when first diagnosed and she is exhibiting sympt oms of weight loss, tiredness and mood changes at present. Debatably, this is because here blood glucose levels are uncontrolled due to her pregnancy. Having said this however, research has found that adolescents (in particularly girls) are not vigilant in all aspects of managing their condition. Having a certain level of hyperglycaemia will enable a person to eat, yet remain thin. In todays society that is obsessed with thinness teenage girls might undertake much(prenominal) an action (Carson, 2000, pp36-37).Complications of diabetes mellitus in general and during pregnancyThere are many long-term clinical complications of diabetes that affect various systems and organs of the body. Having diabetes mellitus increases the jeopardy of developing irreversible microvascular or macrovascular disease. Microvascular diseases include retinopathy, nephropathy and neuropathy and macrovascular diseases include ischemic heart disease, stroke and peripheral vascular disease. These disease are all a result of deplorable glycaemic control (Donnelly et al., 2000, pp1062-1066). Diabetic retinal and renal disease will be discussed in more detail as pregnancy can result in further complications and unfortunate pregnancy outcome.Diabetic retinopathy is an eye disease that can lead to blindness. The longer a person is diabetic, the higher the chances are of developing the condition. It is thought that prolonged periods of hyperglycaemia cause damage to the blood vessels in the retina at the back of the eye. Diabetic retinal disease can deteriorate during pregnancy and poor glycaemic control in the first trimester is associated with the progression of retinopathy (Hill, 2004, p40-44, Donnelly et al, 2000, pp1062-1066). Carol should have her retinas examined at the start of her pregnancy to establish if she has pre-existing retinopathy. If retinopathy is diagnosed than Carol will need to have regular eye tests to monitor the condition. Continuous good glycaemic control will sto p the condition from progressing.Diabetic renal disease or nephropathy is once again caused by hyperglycaemia resulting in damage to the capillaries in the kidneys. The kidneys are then unable to undertake filtration of amino acids and this leads to hypertensive disease. Women who have pre-existing nephropathy are at an increased risk of poorer pregnancy outcomes. This is because high blood pressure as a direct result of nephropathy can cause pre-eclampsia. This in turn can cause premature delivery and maternal death (Donnelly et al, 2000, pp1062-1066, Hill, 2004, pp40-44). It is important therefore, that Carols blood pressure is monitored throughout her pregnancy as hypertension is a sign of pre-eclampsia (Bewley, 2002, p50).Effects of type 1 diabetes on the developing embryo, foetus and motherIt is suggested that type 1 diabetes mellitus in pregnancy puts the foetus and the developing nestling at far greater risk than is imposed on the mother. Various, starchyially damaging pro blems can arise from foetal reactions to maternal glucose levels. Therefore, if a mothers glucose levels are high, the foetus will have correspondingly high levels (Bewley, 2002, p51).If a mothers blood glucose levels are continuously high (hyperglycaemia) during the first-trimester there is an increased risk of congenital anomalies such as neural tube defects that include spina bifida, abnormalities of the heart and anatomical abnormalities of the bones (Confidential Enquiry into Maternal and Child Health, CEMACH, 2005, p37). Neural tube defects are major birth defects of a babys brain or spine. They happen when the neural tube (that later turns into the brain and spine) does not develop in a correct anatomical manner resulting in damage to the brain or spine (Tortora and Grabowski, 2003, p1073). This happens within the first few weeks that a woman is pregnant, oft before a woman knows that she is pregnant.Another condition that is attributed to maternal diabetes is that of Polyhy dramnios. This is the medical condition of too much amniotic fluid in the amniotic sac. Polyhydramnios is for the most part due to maternal diabetes and is thought to be caused by increased foetal urination. This is caused by the elevated amount of glucose in the mothers blood that cross the placenta and makes the blood of the foetus hyperglycaemic. This results in increased urine output from the foetus. In pregnancies affected by Polyhydramnios, approximately twenty percent of the neonates are born with a congenital unusual person of some type. There are a number of risks that are increased in polyhydramnios including cord prolapse, placental abruption and perinatal death (Pilu Nicolaides, 2006)Other unfavorable neonatal conditions that are attributed to maternal diabetes are neonatal mortality, premature birth, hypoglycaemia and an increased risk of respiratory distress syndrome (Bewley, 2002, p51). There is also an increased risk of macrosomia that can lead to an augmented po ssibility of shoulder dystocia and an assisted delivery. Macrosomia is related to maternal hyperglycaemia and is characterised by larger-than-normal birth weight in a newborn at over 4500 grams (10 pounds). High levels of glucose in the mothers blood readily pass through the placenta to the developing baby stimulating insulin production in the baby. Insulin is a potent growth hormone and so fat is deposited which can result in a large baby. This can cause shoulder dystocia and birth trauma because the baby will not easily fit through the birth canal. Postpartum, the newborn continues to produce excessive quantities of insulin that can result in the infant being hypoglycaemic.The mother has an increased prevalence of pre-eclampsia, postpartum infection, postpartum bleeding, and caesarean section (Reece et al, 2004, p169) .It appears from the research indicated that Carol needs to have optimum glucose control for her own health and for that of her baby. Women with type 1 diabetes shou ld have a pre- initiation glucose level within normal limits that is an HbA1c of below 7 percent. The management of pregnancies complicated by pre-existing diabetes mellitus should begin prior to conception (Reece et al, 2004, pp481). However, at seventeen it is quite possible that Carols pregnancy was unplanned.Is type 1 diabetes mellitus hereditary?It is thought that there may be a genetic or inherited susceptibility to diabetes. If a parent has type 1 diabetes, the chance that their children will be affected is about twenty-five to forty percent. In the instance of type 1 diabetes various genes have been indentifyed that might predispose an individual to the disease. Therefore, it is suggested that this genetic mutation might incline an individual to diabetes. It is debated that a genetic element is not, in itself enough to cause autoimmunity. It is suggested that external influences such as a viral infection are thought to trigger the disorder. It can be said that type 1 diabete s is an immunological disease that has a genetic background cause (Littorin, 2001, pp1033-37). It is possible therefore, that Carol has inherited a genetic susceptibility to type 1 diabetes from her mother, but environmental factors might activate the actual disease.ConclusionDiabetes is an increasingly common disease that if not controlled can cause a number of disabling lasting complications that can have a destructive influence on both quality and quantity of life. Type 1 diabetes is thought to be an autoimmune disease that leads to the complete destruction of the insulin producing beta cells in the pancreas. Insulin is needed to help glucose enter the cells of the body. Glucose is required in the cells to produce energy for normal cell function. It is possible that there is an hereditary link that predisposes an individual to the condition.As Carol was diagnosed with type 1 diabetes mellitus at the age of seven and she has had impediment in controlling her blood glucose levels, she is at an increased risk of developing diabetic complications. It appears that her pregnancy will also intensify the effects of some of the complications bear upon both her own health and that of her baby. It is suggested that Carol needs to attain good glycaemic control for her own health and for the health of her baby.BibliographyBewley C (2002) Diabetes in pregnancy. Nursing Standard, 16, 25, 47-52.Burden M (2003) Diabetes signs, symptoms and making a diagnosis. Nursing Times, 99, 1,30-32.Carson C (2000) Managing adolescents with type 1 diabetes. Nursing Times, 96, 45, 36-37Confidential Enquiry into Maternal and Child Health Pregnancy in Women with Type 1and Type 2 diabetes in 2002-03, England, Wales and Northern Ireland. London CEMACH 2005.Diagram 1 and Diagram 2 http//cal.man.ac.uk/student_projects/2000/mnby7lc2/pancreas.htm, date accessed 23/11/2006.Donnelly R, Emslie-Smith AM, Gardner ID and Morris AD (2000) vascular complications of diabetes. British Medical Journal, 32 0, 1062-1066.Hill J (2004) Identifying and managing the complications of diabetes. Nursing Times, 100, 34, 40-44.Littorin B (2001) Family Characteristics and Life Events Before the Onset of Autoimmune Type 1 Diabetes in Young Adults A nationwide study. Diabetes Care, 24, 1033-1037.Pilu G and Nicolaides KH (2006) The 18-23 week scan Polyhydramnios. http//www.fetalmedicine.com/18-23scanbook/Chapter14/chap14-03.htm, date accessed 23/11/2006.Reece EA, Coustan DR and Gabbe SG (2004) Diabetes in Women Adolescence, Pregnancy and Menopause. 3rd edition, Philadelphia, Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.Rosenbloom AL, Young RS, Joe JR and Winter WE (1999) Emerging Epidemic of Type 2 Diabetes in Youth. Diabetes Care, 22, (2), 345-354.Tortora GJ and Grabowski SR (2003) Principles of Anatomy and Physiology. 10th edition, New Jersey, John Wiley Sons, Inc.Waugh A and Grant A (2001) Ross and Wilson Anatomy and Physiology in Health and Illness. 9th edition, London, Churchill Livingstone.World Health O rganisation (2006) Diabetes. Fact sheet N312, September 2006, http//www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs312/en/ date accessed 23/11/2006.

History of Education in Afghanistan

History of Education in AfghanistanEarly ultramodernism to Present Day PoliciesThis chapter presents a chronological narrative about the growth and changes in Afghan field learning goals and outcomes and issues related to ascertainer education in a cultural/historical context. Traditional views regarding education goals and practice brook the basic foundation for lowstanding the progress and quarrels toward universal education in the nation.The historical discipline in this chapter is well documented in numerous sources, as well as having been part of the authors own education as a child and adolescent in capital of Afghanistan domesticates. Important references from which reli able objective nurture was drawn include the Ministry of Education (1968) report on the last fifty years of education, as well as other makes, reports, and documents (Dupree, L., 1973 Poullada,1973 Rashid, 2008 Rotberg, 2007 Rubin, 2002 Sadat, 2004 Samady, 2001 and 2013 Sarvi, 2003 Tomsen, 2011). T hese sources were consistent in their reporting of events related to education progress or decline. Their general agreement on facts enab direct me as author to weave together this history without always attributing the information to a specific source. Other, less central, historical sources are included as citations where appropriate.Although not an Arabic nation, Afghanistan does share the religion of Islam with Arab Muslim nations, as well as the Arabic script essential to reading the Holy Quran. Dari and Pashto, the two chief(prenominal) languages of Afghanistan, are derivatives of Indo-European (Indo-Aryan), not Semitic (Arabic/Hebrew) languages. Afghanistan is part of the historical stream of Islamic finis embracing the centuries of advancement of knowledge in science, mathematics, philosophy, poetry and literature during the historical era when Europe was locked in what historians now refer to as the Dark Ages. The literature of Plato, Aristotle, and other Greek thinkers were preserved and expanded by Islamic scholars who made original contributions in scientific and literary fields. Afghanistan, before modern internal boundaries were outlined, was the place of birth or radix of numerous scholars of renown such as Avicenna and Al-Biruni, as well as the poet, Rumi, whose works are revered even today.This information is offered as a prelude to provide a better understanding of the pride of Afghanistan in its educational and cultural roots, and the determination to restore or theorise the educational legacy and intellectual vitality of its people. The study presented in this dissertation explores the responses to present day crises and chaos in a war-ravaged country as it pillow slips the challenges to urinate a youthful national schema of education that both respects the past and wants to be respected in the global society. Afghanistan now attempts to overcome the overwhelm gap between what is left after massive destruction and what needs to be d hotshot to catch up with the rest of the modern world.Before the Modern EraTraditional education and apprenticeships for Afghan children and youth in previous centuries was centered on the home and the mosque. When and where madrassas (religious schools) became available, they were also accessible to boys. Signs of modern education did not appear in Afghanistan until the early 1900s, around 1903, under the reign of Amir Habibullah who founded the counterbalance secondary school, Habibia Lycee. This school was modeled after the Indian laid-back school program which itself was adopted from the British who copied it from the French. Habibullah took locomote to increase literacy through increases in print media, newspapers, journals, and the reassert of libraries. any(prenominal) school-age childs from Habibia were sent abroad for study, especially to British India. Habibia high school gained a reputation over the years for its role in providing a large number of leaders for the nation. However, the pace of educational change and modernisation was slow.Steps Toward ModernizationA method for teaching literacy was developed in 1906 including new textbooks and a teachers guide. This led to the creation of the Office of Textbooks in 1907 in coordinate to provide uniform school textbooks for the increasing number of schools.It became clear that a standard curriculum, with new textbooks, require instruct teachers knowledgeable in the text real(a) therefore, the prime(prenominal) teacher learning institute, Dar-al-Malimin, was established in Kabul in 1912. In the following year a Department of Education was established to wait on to the issues of promoting chief(a) education. Amir Habibullah appointed his son as department head. Education, free school supplies, and a small stipend were available to the manful students selected to attend. In 1912, the first normal school was established in Kabul to train teachers for primal schools (Ministry of Educat ion, 1968, p. 6).In 1919, Shah Amanullah became the ruler by succession, and actively supported the movement toward widespread national education. He elevated the Department of Education to the Ministry of Education and appointed his son, Prince Abdur Rahman, as the countrys first Minister of Education.Mahmud Tarzi, a reformist educated statesman and the father-in-law of Shah Amanullah, held an influential situation in the Amani (Amanullah) government activity pushing especially for education reform and for the em business officement of women. Tarzis daughter, Queen Soraya, in 1921 with her mother, Rasmiya, founded the first high school for girls, Masturat. Rasmiya was appointed as the first principal. Between 1921 1928, more than 800 females were enrolled. In 1928, the first co-education classes were introduced at Amaniyya Lycee for grades one and two.Under Tarzis leadership other primary schools were established in major towns, villages, and cities. In addition to schools in ea ch province there were also schools for the countrys nomads, the Kuchis. Several new high schools (Lycee) were founded between 1922 and 1930, some teaching foreign languages such as German or English as an attempt to provide an education comparable to that of Europe and other advance nations. Two vocational schools were opened in 1924, one for business and administration and another for fine and applied arts. The goal was to have a national system of schools with a modern curriculum. The beginning of a network of government-run intermediate and secondary schools was achieved in 1928 as many another(prenominal) as 40,000 students were enrolled.However, since higher(prenominal) education was missing in Afghanistan the government began to allow top male students (sons from elite families) to study outside of the country, for example, in India, Germany, France, Egypt, and Turkey. Ten girls were allowed to go to Turkey in 1928 for university study, but this practice was soon aborted re quiring the girls to return home as a conservative backlash grew strong.Unfortunately, conservative sectors in society believed that government schooling was unreligious and if children attended those schools, they became infidels. Conservative traditional sectors opposed changes in the education system they viewed as western, modern, urban, and against Islam. The opposition included clergy, tribal leaders, some rural ethnic groups, and government opposition groups.The unpopularity of Amanullah became so strong, threatening civil upheaval, that in early 1929 he abdicated and desire refuge in Italy. Taking his place as ruler for only nine months was the militia commander, Habibullah Kalakani, who reversed the educational reforms made under Amanullah. Among the first steps harborn by the new Kalakani monarchy were the closure of female schools and the disbanding of the Womens Association of Kabul. The Irshad-e Naswan, the only newspaper published for women, also was banned. The gove rnment recalled the female Afghan students from Turkey and required them to put on the veil.The government replaced the language of instruction, Dari, with only Pashtu in an attempt to bolster the states claim to Pashtunistan, Pakistans Northwestern Frontier Province.Education returned to traditional practices. tender and economic measures, including education policy, aimed at sustaining a traditional agricultural society. The majority of rural communities had no schools and continued the education of their children, in the traditional way, at home and in the mosques.All government schools were closed briefly during this period in 1929 however, schools were re-opened in late 1929 when Nadir Shah became king after capturing and executing Kalakani. Although he at one time had been Minister of Education, education under Nadir Shah was not a central priority. However, one progressive step was taken in 1931 when women were allowed to take health classes at the Masturat Hospital in Kabul . Nadir Shah did support the establishment of Kabul University in 1931 despite the persistence of the anti-modern conservative resistance. In addition, in 1932, the force of medicine was founded.Nadir Shah was assassinated at a high school graduation ceremony in 1933 (Dupree.L.,1973. p. 174). His nineteen year-old son, Prince Zahir, was immediately crowned king, but for many years a proxy rule by older male relatives characterized his leadership. Zahir Shah was king for four decades, from 1933 to 1973, during a period that was relatively free of civil unrest. Some favorable trends started to emerge in the late 1940s. Advances were made in education, the economy, and civil society especially in urban areas during much of his reign, although the conservative Islamic anti-modern component remained strong even as the Communist influence became a dominant disruptive factor. In 1964, a Constitution was created enabling greater citizen participation under a Constitutional monarchy.Higher education introduced in the 1940s included embryonic universities in major cities, most notably Kabul University supported by the United States, and the Polytechnic University founded by the Soviet Union for vocational/technical advanced training. Faculties were established in law (1938), science (1942), and letters (1944). In 1947, Kabul University was formally established. Three years later, the departments of theology, agriculture, and economics were founded. Some departments were affiliated with foreign universities in Germany, France, America, and the Soviet Union University admission gave priority to sons of the ruling aristocracy or sons of top bureaucrats (Sadat. 2004).In 1946, a Womens Institute was started in Kabul to provide classes for a few privileged girls and women. A year later, two girls high schools were created and in 1947, a womens faculty of education was established. Further steps were taken when, in 1949, the first group of girls having the equivalent of a hi gh school diploma began to teach in girls schools.By 1950 there were 368 primary, secondary and vocational schools, and one teacher training school with a national total of 95,300 students. The enrollment of children in primary education was 6% of the entire age group, 6 through 12 years, in an estimated population of 11 million people. (Samady 2001),In the 1950s efforts to expand education and improve its quality were initiated. In 1949, the Afghan government asked UNESCO to send a Mission to study its educational system. In 1954, USAID and Columbia University Teachers College focused efforts on the soft improvement of teacher education in Afghanistan. In 1955, the Institute of Education was created and later integrated into Kabul University.According to Wilbur (1962), in 1960 there were 175,600 pupils in 1,110 primary schools of whom 19,000 were girls. Among the 11,300 students enrolled in grades seven to nine, 2,500 (22%) were girls. Approximately 193,000 Afghan students were en rolled in schools in Afghanistan and abroad, a figure double that of a decade earlier in 1950. Nepotism, favoritism, and corruption were familiar complaints regarding the awarding of foreign scholarships (Wilbur, 1962, pp. 85-87).Soviet Assistance and InterventionBy the early 1970s, about 90% of the Afghan armed forces were being trained by the Soviets. Thousands were trained in the Soviet Union as well as more thousands in Afghanistan. Russia also sent arms and military experts to Afghanistan. Afghan university graduates received fellowships for advanced study in the USSR and Warsaw Pact nations. From this aid and experience a growing elite of Afghans emerged with modern ideas as well as social and governmental sympathies in harmony with Communism. Slowly but surely the Sovietization of Afghanistan was occurring. vertex Minister Daoud enthusiastically encouraged Soviet engagement in Afghanistan, earning himself the nickname the Red Prince.At the time of Prime Minister Daouds rei gn in the 1970s, three boarding high schools were introduced in Kabul Ibn Sina (later becoming Lycee), Khushal Khan Khattak Lycee, and Rahman Baba Lycee. Ibn Sina served as a teachers training institution equipping male rural students to return to their villages to become teachers. Khushal Khan Khattak Lycee and Rahman Baba Lycee enrolled students from the tribal areas as part of the attempt to integrate unlike tribes into the government.In the late 1970s Afghanistan had a functioning education system comprising over a million students including 20% girls in primary, secondary and higher education. presidential term expenditures on education came to constitute 40% of the national budget.In 1977, the education infrastructure could not support the educational demands. By 1978, there were more than one million students in primary and secondary schools and other educational institutions in Afghanistan. Of there, there were 152,750 girls (about 14%) and 5,070 female teachers in primary schools. In an attempt to thin out constrict on both the education system and the labor market, the government instituted the, Kankurexam (from the French word concours), the university entry test at the end of the 12th grade. The main purpose of the Kankur was to select potentially successful university students from the rest of the student population. This test became a controversial but established screening mechanism for reducing pressure on the overstrained university system. (Other spellings will be found for this exam including Concord, Konkor.)In 1978, the constitutional monarchy was abolished by a palace coup dtat declaring former Prime Minister Mohammed Daoud as the countrys President of the first republican government. The Soviets immediately recognized the new government. Not only was the new constitution of the government styled after that of the Soviet Union but also changes in academia began to resemble the Soviet approach to education including introducing co-educ ation, especially at the university level, but also in the reduce schools.However, in April 1978, President Muhammad Daoud was overthrown in what is referred to as the Saur Revolution. Nur Muhammad Taraki, head of the Peoples Democratic casey of Afghanistan (PDPA) replaced Daoud as President. Taraki instituted even broader Marxist style reforms including a rural literacy campaign expanding educational opportunity to masses of uneducated farmers and women. He was not intimidated by the internal conflict between groups supporting traditional systems against the modernization movement. Taraki continued to affront those determined to maintain traditional customs. He pushed forward drastic social and economic measures, including land reform, womens rights and modern education. These ideological conflicts led within the year (in 1979) to his qualifying of male monarch.Prime Minister Hafizullah Amin ousted him as president. Amin took firm steps to quell any opposition such as imprison ing and executing individuals and groups who were viewed as unsupportive. He did not intermit to go after his own party constituents such as former President Taraki or his sympathizers. Opposition, however, and dissatisfaction were broiling up throughout the nation making the Soviets apprehensive about the stability of the rapidly changing government.In December 1979 Soviet tanks rolled into Afghanistan. In 1980, President Amin was removed and Babrak Karmal, former 1960s parliamentarian, became the countrys fourth president.The educational system, over several decades, became increasingly influenced and funded by the USSR. After the Soviet invasion of 1979 this trend increased dramatically. Literacy courses and programs educating about health and technology were expanded throughout the country. Part of the reforms included the creation of a pedagogical research center. In 1981, the Central Institute for the Retraining of Teachers was established. In 1982, the Kabul Pedagogical In stitute was founded. Further academician exchanges were established with Eastern Bloc countries. American and Western exchanges stopped.Amins presidency lasted six years. In 1986, Dr. Muhammad Najibullah, former head of the Afghan intelligence agency (the secret police), became the countrys fifth president. President Najibullah, a graduate of the school of medicine at Kabul University realizing the need for more higher education throughout the country, opened three new universities Balkh (1986), Herat (1988), and Kandahar (1991). However, Najibullah, seen to be brutal and ruthless, alienated many Afghan groups including his own army, but in particular the Islamic conservative groups that became united as the party of the Taliban. Najibullah was obligate out of office in 1992, taking refuge for four years in the UN compound. His own brutal execution at the hands of the Taliban in 1996 precipitated the well-behaved War that eventually led to the empowerment of the Taliban.Impact o f Soviet Defeat, the civilized War and the Demise of Modern EducationBefore the civil war in the 1990s, the Afghan higher education system was largely intact and thriving. UNESCO estimated university enrollment in 1990 at more than 24,000, with women making up one third of the student body. Much of the destruction of Kabul in 1992-1994 was in the area around Kabul University classes were seriously disrupted as virtually all faculties fled Kabul or were killed. During Taliban rule (1995-2001), the provision of higher education was limitedto men only, mainly at what remained of Kabul University, and concentrated on Islamic studies.In April 1992 the Afghan government transferred power to the Islamic Jihad Council (IJC) which was designated by the Peshawar Accords. Within days the various factions collided and Kabul was engulfed in civil war cascading throughout the country. To make matters worse, schools and universities, specifically Kabul University, became the stages for warfare a nd pillage.This had an immense impact on education. With no uniform curriculum, religious education was given priority over all other subjects. Equal education opportunities of boys and girls were snub while religious schools for boys were encouraged. Due to fighting and the security situation the universities and schools were frequently closed. There was damage to buildings and insecurity, which affected school attendance as teachers, administrators, and students became displaced. Even laboratories, furniture, and the electric car wiring from inside the walls of its classrooms were stolen.The rival factions targeted the libraries and thousands of volumes were both plunder or burned rare titles were smuggled and sold off for high prices in the antiquarian book markets outside the country. In an article entitled Raping the Libraries of Kabul details of how the various factions burnt or sold millions of hand written books on religion, history, poetry, and autobiographies of great scholars. From that million-volume compendium only 20,000 books survived. (Hussain, 1998).By 1995, the Taliban shoot downed other fighting groups in the Civil War, and took over the government with pledges of peace and order. However, they introduced strict social policies based on their commentary of proper practices in Islam. The Taliban completely closed down most government schools, especially those for girls. Only religious studies in religious schools (madrassas) were allowed for boys. Still, many Afghans educated their children, including their girls, illegally and secretly at home using pieces of the modern, already discarded, curriculum.In 1999 the enrolment in primary education was 811,500 with only 7% girls. The enrolments in secondary and higher education were limited and the universities were often closed and did not function effectively. Thousands of teachers and education administrators became victims of war, underwent intellectual apartheid, or left Afghanistan d uring the Soviet occupation, the Civil War, and especially after the Taliban came to power.The 9/11 Call to ActionThe Chase for bin Laden, Defeat of the Taliban, and Western OccupationThen on 9/11/01 Osama bin Laden and his pursuit known as Al Qaeda planned and carried out a major attack on the United States. Bin Laden was a member of the Saudi ruling family. He had become radicalized against the West, particularly against the United State. He and his armed men used remote areas in Afghanistan (and Pakistan) for hide-away bases. The destruction of 9/11 resulted from care to the full planned attacks using commercial airlines as suicide bombers, destroying both of the Twin Towers in sassy York City as well as a simultaneous attack on the Pentagon in Washington, D.C. A third part of the plan involved the use of another airliner for a third target in the Capitol, probably the White House, but the plane crashed as a result of passenger intervention. These attacks resulted in the deaths of more than 5,000 Americans in one brief morning.By October, 2001 the government of the United States retaliated, seeking revenge on bin Laden. Other sympathetic nations joined to make an allied force that stormed Afghanistan, taking the country from Taliban control. After the defeat of the Taliban in 2001 many Afghans who had fled as refugees during the years of conflict, returned to Afghanistan to help rebuild their country.As the school year started in March 2002, the capacity to supply education had been decimated in both quantity and quality. The situation of the country was described in this way by a joint report of international organizationsThe Afghan education system has been undermined by 23 years of war, by widespread physical destruction, by restructuring under a communist regime, and by its use as a semipolitical and religious pawn by succeeding governments. The concept of secular education has been under constant attack for decades-first as a source of foreign ideas that led to the communist takeover and then by the Taliban who banned education for girls entirely, and promoted and expanded the system of religious schools at the expense of secular schools (AIA, 2002).The results of the US response, with international support especially from western governments, led to the defeat and withdrawal of the Taliban and the institution of a new western supported (and many believe controlled) interim government. A national Shura (representative convention) was held, a new Constitution for the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan was written, elections were scheduled, and commitments made for a decade of international funding and support in rebuilding the nation as a democratic, modern, technologically equipped participant in the global community.The challenges were overwhelming including rebuilding the entire governmental infrastructure, rebuilding roadways and creating new lines of transportation and communication, restoring and upgrading electrical power a s well as water and sanitation systems, rebuilding or removing destroyed structures, establishing a banking system, and modernizing commerce including all types of products imported for human survival and comfort.The biggest challenge was that of re-building the totally destroyed education system from the bottom up and from the top down. The education system reformed by the Soviets to include the masses had never been fully operational. Educational opportunity was left largely to those who had access to urban areas where even girls were allowed to attend schools at the university in Kabul where co-educational classes had been the Soviet policy. However, by the end of the Civil War and certainly by the end of the Taliban rule, the universities had been destroyed and were barely functional when offering classes at all. As described earlier, faculty had fled or were dead, buildings were gutted and marauded. Campuses were denuded either by soldiers trying to eliminate hiding places for opposition forces, or by civilians seeking firewood. Furniture was stolen and broken up to use for home heating equipment was looted even the electrical wiring was stripped from buildings still standing and taken for sale in the black market. Libraries and laboratories were ghostly artifacts attesting to the destruction of symbols of learning.As the attempt to re-open universities began in 2002, the flow of citizens from the country began to reverse with many Afghans returning from refugee camps in Pakistan and Iran or from other countries in which they were exiled including the United States, Canada, Iran, Great Britain, Germany and other countries. Some of these returning were able to take positions of leadership in the new government headed by President Karzai in a democratic election, and some were capable of restoring the universities and the schools. Stories from students who began to study again at Kabul University tell of walking across human bones on the tall grasses of the university campus that had earlier been a site of warring groups.The next chapter, relating the efforts to rebuild a nation, provides the heart of the dissertation describing the responses to the enormous challenges to the recruitment, preparation, education, deployment of teachers in post-conflict education in Afghanistan. The specific initiatives, policies, programs and problems in building a national corps of professional teachers for Afghanistan in the face of enormous limitations of human capacity, financial resources, cultural and social value differences, are expanded upon in the following dissertation chapters.ReferencesAIA Afghanistan Interim Administration. (2002). Comprehensive Needs perspicacity for the Education Sector in Afghanistan. Kabul Afghanistan Interim Administration.Amin, Sakai. (2012). Modern Afghanistan A History of Struggle and Survival. London I.B. Taurus.Baize, Y. (2013). Education in Afghanistan developments, Influences and Legacies since 1901. Florenc e, Kentucky Routledge/Taylor and Francis.Dupree, L. (1973). Afghanistan. Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press.Hussain, I. (1998). Raping the Libraries of Kabul. Diplomat Magazine.Vol. 8. 6.Ministry of Education. (1968). Education in Afghanistan during the Last Fifty Years I. Primary, Secondary. Kabul MoE Planning Dept.Poullada, L. (1973). Reform and Rebellion in Afghanistan, 1919-1929 King Amanullahs Failure to Modernize a Tribal Society. Ithaca, NY Cornell University Press.Rashid, A. (2008). Descent into chaos. hot York Viking.Rotberg, R. I. (ed.). (2007). Building a new Afghanistan. Washington, DC The Brookings Institution Press, The World Peach Foundation.Rubin, RB. (2002). The Fragmentation of Afghanistan State Formation and Collapse in the International System. New haven Yale University Press.Sadat, M. H. (2004). History of education in Afghanistan. Retrieved from http//reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/history-education-afghanistanSamady, S. R. (2001). Education and Af ghan Society in the 20th Century. UNESCO.Samady, S. R. (2013). Changing profile of education in Afghanistan.Sarvi, J. (2003). A New Start. Manila, Philippines Asia Development Bank.Tomsen, P. (2011). The wars of Afghanistan Messianic terrorism, tribal conflicts, and the failures of great powers. Public Affairs Perseus Books Group.Wilbur, D., (1962). Afghanistan. New Haven Yale University Press

English Language Teaching Methods

English Language Teaching MethodsBACKGROUND The Grammar Translation Method is the oldest mode of instruction. The grammar version method is a international diction statement method derived from the classical ( close totimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. This method has been corporeal exercised from the classical times to hand everywhere classical run-ins, Latin and Greek, it has been called Classical method.ADVANTAGES The phraseology of the maneuver expression is quickly explicateed. Translation is the easiest sort of explaining meanings or lecture and phrases from one lecture into a nonher. Communication between the instructor and the larner does non ca theatrical role linguistic problems. Even teachers who argon not fluent in English potful teach English through and through this method.DISADVANTAGES It is an unnatural method. The natural severalize of knowledge a row is audition, speaking, course session and writing. Speech is neg lected. The Grammar Translation Method lays emphasis on reading material and writing. Exact description is not practical. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and exact translation from one nomenclature to another is not always possible. It sooner attempts to teach phraseology through rules and not by use. The persons who have learned a foreign or second style through this method find it difficult to bewilder up the habit of first thinking in their mother glossa and then translating their ideas into the second language. The ability to communicate in the coffin nail language is not a death of foreign language instruction. The primary skills to be developed atomic number 18 reading and writing. Little attention is coursen to speaking and listening, and almost no(prenominal) to pronunciation.teacher ROLE The teacher is the authority in the classroom. There is no interaction from teacher to the students (except in questions). educatee ROLE Students atomic number 18 th e passive receivers of the sunrise(prenominal) knowledge. Students be suppose to memorize the rules and the modern vocabulary with their meanings in their native language. If students tail end translate from one language to another, they are considered successful language learners. It is in truth important that students get the correct attend.METHODOLOGY Teaching and learning process is based on translation, the study of grammar rules through examples (deductive approach) and memorization of vocabulary. Texts from the target language lit are utilize. The techniques used are Translation, Reading comprehension questions, antonyms/synonyms, cognates, deductive application of rule, fill in the blanks, memorization, use of new words in sentences, composition, and so on.L1 practice session Classes are conducted in the native language. Students use their native language to translate. Since oral communication in the target language is not important, classroom book of instructions are flagn in L1.L2 practice session The use of the foreign language is limited teacher and students use it only to translate words or sentences to their mother tongue to the foreign language.LISTENING elflike attention is given to speaking and listening. There is no listening training. Students only listen the foreign language when translate. No listening exercises.SPEAKING Also this is not an important aspect of the method, teacher doesnt work on speaking. No speaking ( more(prenominal)over the translation, because it may be spoken) the ability to communicate in the target language is not a goal of foreign language instruction. No pronunciation exercises.READING read literature in the target language is the aim of this method. Grammar rules and vocabulary are stressed. A fundamental purpose of learning a foreign language is to be able to read literature indite in it. create verbally reading and writing are studied at the same time. The importance in this method is to read and write the foreign language translating from their mother tongue.EVALUATION Translation is an important technique to test students progress in the target language. In addition, fill-in-the-blank type test items are also used. Synonyms, antonyms, and cognates git be asked to test vocabulary in formal tests. Reading passages and comprehension questions close the passages can also play place in tests as the reading section.PERSONAL OPINION Nowadays teachers shouldnt base their teaching practice only on this method. Students probably find it boring and discouraging, besides the most important goal when we are learning a foreign language is to be able to communicate in this language, and this method doesnt put any attention to this aspect. just rather than reject totally this method, teachers can use it sometimes when they need, for example, to convey the meaning of a difficult word when other visual aids cant do students.DIRECT METHODBACKGROUND This method was developed initially a s a reaction to the grammar-translation method in an attempt to integrate more use of the target language in instruction. It was develop by Maximilian Berlitz. He started to use it in the schools that bear his name in 1878. It was successful in the beginning entirely its popularity started to decay in the 1920s when schools start to complement the method with more controlled grammar based activity.The direct method of teaching foreign languages, sometimes called the natural method, refrains from apply the learners native language and uses only the target language. The direct method was an answer to the dissatisfaction with the older grammar translation method, which teaches students grammar and vocabulary through direct translations and thus focuses on the compose language.ADVANTAGES Students can learn the target language directly and arrangingatically. Students can pronounce correctly.DISADVANTAGES It overemphasizes and distorts the alikeities between naturalistic first langua ge learning and classroom foreign language learning and it fails to consider the practical realities of the classroom.It requires teachers who are native speakers or who are fluency in the foreign language. It is largely dependent on the teachers skill, rather than on a textbook and not all teachers are proficient enough in the foreign language to adhere to the principles of the method. some(prenominal)times a simple design explanation in the students native tongue would have been a more efficient route to comprehension.TEACHERS ROLE The teacher usually directs the interactions but he/she is not as dominant as in Grammar Translation Method. Sometimes acts like a partner of the students. The teacher asks questions, correct mis payoffs, lets students speak more than him/her. do lesson plan instead of a book, speak naturally, etc.STUDENTS ROLE Students are active participants. Sometimes pair of works take place. Even the teacher takes roles in activities. Students imitate the correc t pronunciation. They try to express in the foreign language and interact with the teacher and classmates in the foreign language. thereof students learn to think and speak in their target language. The drive method is highly motivating to students.METHODOLOGYPictures, realia, examples, sample sentences are used to teach vocabulary. Use of L1 is not allowed. There is a direct relation between form and meaning. Grammar is taught inductively. Examples and drills are given and students are expect to discover and take on the rules.Introduction of new word, sentence or concept SHOWVisual aid or gestures, to ensure student understands new word. SAYTeacher verbally introduces element. TRYStudent makes various attempts to pronounce new element. MOLDTeacher corrects student if necessary, pointing to mouth to betoken proper shaping of lips, tongue and relationship to teeth. REPEATStudent repeats element 5-20 times.Progress, from new word to new word (within same lesson) and progress, from lesson to lesson (LESSON REVIEWfirst few minutes of each lesson are to inspection lesson immediately completed and GLOBAL REVIEWtransition from lesson review to a comprehensive review. Here some examples of activities Reading Aloud, Question and Answer Exercise, Getting Students to Self-Correct, Map Drawing,L1 USAGE The use of the mother tongue is not permitted.L2 USAGE Teacher and students only use the foreign language in class.LISTENING, SPEAKING, READING, and WRITING oral communication is seen as basic. Speaking, listening, reading and writing are important skills. Especially speaking and listening are emphasized. Vocabulary is over grammar. Speaking is the most important skill. Reading and writing are not introduced until listening and speaking are fluent skills.EVALUATION The ability to use the language is tested. Not about language, the language itself. In the Direct Method, students are asked to use the language, not to demonstrate their knowledge about the language. They ar e asked to do so using both oral and compose skills. For example, the students might be interviewed orally by the teacher or might be asked to write a paragraph about something they have studied.PERSONAL OPINION Even though the Direct Method is not a functional or notional way of teaching it is quite a good method to teach general English. But if the teacher is not native or proficiency in the foreign language he should certainly go to the class with a lesson plan to hire out the activities and to be successful with the Direct Method.AUDIO-LINGUAL METHODBACKGROUND The Audio-lingual method was widely used in the United States and other countries in the 1950s and 1960s. The Audio-lingual Method was developed in the U.S.A. during the Second World War. At that time, the U.S. government found a great necessity to set up a special language-training program to supply the war with language personnel. The sound-lingual method, Army Method, or New Key is a style of teaching used in teachin g foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement-correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method. Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students be taught a language directly, without using the students native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method didnt focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar.ADVANTAGES The audio-lingual theory is probably the first language teaching theory that openly claims to be derived from linguistics and psychology. Making language teaching possible to large groups of learners. It aims at developing listening and speaking skills which is a step away from the Grammar translation method. The use of visual aids has proven its effectiveness in vocabulary teaching.DISADVANTAGES The method is based on false assumptions about language. The study of language doesnt amount to studying the parole, the observable data. Mastering a language relies on acquiring the rules underlying language performance. That is, the linguistic, sociolinguistic, and discourse competences.The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited. Many scholars have proven its weakness. Noam Chomsky (1959) A Review of B. F. Skinners Verbal Behaviorhas written a strong criticism of the principles of the theory.Not developing language competence, lack of effectiveness, and boredom caused by endless pattern drills are great disadvantages too. Learners have little control over their learning. Teacher has the domination of the class.TEACHER ROLE Teacher is like an orchestra leader. She/he directs and controls the lan guage behavior of the students. Teacher is a good mould of the target language, especially for pronunciation and other oral skills. The teacher models the target language, controls the direction and pace of learning, and monitors and corrects the learners performance. The teacher controls the learners and prevents them from doing anything that conflict with the theory. The teacher is expected to specify the language that learners are going to use.STUDENT ROLE Students are imitators of the teacher as perfect model of the target language or the native speakers in the audio recordings. Learners are expected to interact with the language system, embodied in machines or controlled materials.METHODOLOGY Explicit rules are not provided. Students induce the rules through examples and drills. Students acquire grammar by being exposed to patterns through mechanical drills.Drills and pattern practice are typical of the Audio-lingual method. These include-Repetition where the student repeats a n utterance as soon as he hears it.-Inflection Where one word in a sentence appears in another form when repeated.-Replacement Where one word is replaced by another.-Restatement The student re-phrases an utterance.Meaning is taught directly. L1 is proscribed because it may cause bad habit formations. Vocabulary is introduced through dialogues.The techniques used are dialogue memorization, minimal pairs (for teaching pronunciation), complete the dialogue, grammar games, and mechanical drills.L1 USAGE L1 is not allowed in the classroom. It may cause interference and bad habit formation in L2.L2 USAGE The teacher and the students only use the foreign language.LISTENING, SPEAKING, READING AND WRITING Students can learn target language in natural order listening-speaking-reading-writing.It lays emphasis on listening and speaking. The teacher is a model of L2 and students mimic him/her, so the listening skill is very important for this method. L2 is learned through repetition.EVALUATION Students are evaluated at contrary stages and on different points of the language. Each question is supposed to focus on only one point on the language at time. Discrete-point tests are used.PERSONAL OPINION there are many helpful things we can learn from the Audio-lingual Method. If language learning were organized according to its structure, language learning would be easier, especially to adult learners. The Audio-lingual Method considers language ability make up of four skills and these skills can be taught separately. Since the natural order of skill encyclopedism is listening, speaking, reading, and writing, the Method gives the primary stress to the first dickens of the four skills. Speech is more basic to language than the written form, and listening and speaking are the basic form of verbal communication. In the classroom, the language skills are taught in the order of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Using pattern drills is the center of practice in Audiolingu al Method. It can help students not only gain control over grammatical structures, but also develop their oral ability. The Audio-lingual method also provides language teachers with many useful techniques. The simple drilling techniques provide varied, rate and intensive practice of specific features of the language. The simple and direct approach is especially appropriate for young students and less gifted ones. Moreover, teaching technique with tape recordings and language lab drills offer practice in speaking and listening, which are considered of primary importance in language learning.In sum, we could adapt some kinds of techniques used by the Audio-lingual Method, such as dialogues and pattern drills to our students and their needs, and taking into account important factors such as sociolinguistic and discourse competences, the scene of the students dialogue, and other communicative facts which are essentials when learners are studying a foreign language.SILENT WAYBACKGROUND Cognitive Psychology is the theme. The Silent Way is the name of a method of language teaching devised by Caleb Gattegno in the early 1970,s. Not only in the past but also today, people have learned languages by content of habit formation, memorization and translation. However, cognitive psychologists and transformational generative linguists claimed that languages cannot be learned through mimicry since people can create utterances they have neer heard before. therefore people can learn languages by using their profess thinking processes to discover the rules of the language they are learning.Gattegno stated his reasons for the emergence of his method as followsAs I developed my techniques while subordinating my teaching to the learning, I found that I could very early transfer the responsibility for the use of the language to my students, so that I become able to teach using fewer and fewer words. It is this aspect of my techniques of teaching that prompted me to call the ap proach The Silent Way of Teaching conflicting Languages (Oller and Amato 198373).He gives too much value to the word silent since he thinks that there are means of letting the learners learn while the teacher stops interfering.ADVANTAGES This method fosters cooperative learning between individuals.It embodies a new approach to education in general, a respect for the individual and an awareness of the individuals extraordinary cognitive powers.If it is succeeded to teach the language the by using the rods without repeating too much, it will really save time and energy for both teachers students. The self-esteem of the students will be increased and this will enhance learning. By this way students will say I learned instead of I was taught well. (Demircan1990).DISADVANTAGES It would seem necessary for a teacher to gain a good deal of training and skill in order to apply the Silent Way to the teaching of a total grammar in all its complexity.This method can be benefited by the teache r only in small groups of students. The teacher can gain ability in this method by trying. The teacher is expected to enrich the materials on his/her own.For some teachers the rigidity of the system (no repetitions by the teacher, no answers by the teacher etc.) may be meaningless.For some learners, one limitation is the approach to language basics which begins with seemingly irrelevant discussions about rods and which involves silence and concentration and games with the teacher about meaning. Students expectations and need for immediately relevant language learning may force teachers to abandon the approach (Celce-Murcia 1979).How such a method would in the average classroom situation or how successfully it might be used at more advanced levels is a question mark left in our minds.Language is separated from its social context and taught through artificial situations usually by rods.TEACHER ROLE The teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom to encourage the lear ner to produce as much language as possible.The teacher is expected to create an environment that encourages students risk taking that facilitates learning.The teacher should give only what help is necessary. In other words, the teacher makes use of what students already know. The more the teacher does for the students what they can do for themselves, the less they will do for themselves (Larsen-Freeman 1986).STUDENT ROLE The learner is expected to become independent, autonomous, and responsible in language. Learners are expected to interact with each other and suggest alternatives to each other. They must learn to work cooperatively rather than competitively. The teachers silence encourages group cooperation.In order not to miss what the teacher says, learners must give the teacher their attention. Learner-attention is a get a line to learning.Learners will provide each other with correct models and encourage each others initiative. Thus, this method fosters interdependence and co operation among learners at the same time it promotes independence from the teacher.METHODOLOGY A cardinal principle of the Silent Way is respect for the students capacity to work out language problems and recall information on their own with no verbalization and minimal help from the teacher. Vocabulary is taught by means of visual aids and word-charts. Vocabulary is always recycled by means of word-charts. There is a focus on the structures of the language although explicit grammar rules are never given. Some techniques used areTeaching pronunciation with sound colour chartsCognitive coding with colour rods. couple correction to improve co-operative manner.Self correction gesturesTeachers SilenceStructured feedback students are invited to talk about the days instruction (what they have learnt that day during classes). Students learn to take responsibility for their own learning by becoming aware of themselves, and by controlling and applying their own learning strategies.Fidel Ch arts Used to teach sound spelling association. intelligence activity Charts Used to teach and recycle vocabulary. The words are written in different colours so that students can learn basic pronunciation patterns.L1 USAGE native language can be used to give instructions when necessary. Also native language can be used during the feedback sessions (at least for father levels). If the native language is not very essential then it is avoided. During feedback sessions L1 be used at beginning levels. L1 can be exploited. For example, similar sounds in L1 and L2 can be used to make students aware of phonological similarities.L2 USAGE The use of the target language is essential for this method. L1 can be used to give instructions when necessary. Meaning is made clear by focusing the students perceptions, not by translation.LISTENING, SPEAKING, READING AND WRITING Pronunciation is emphasized at the very beginning. It is important that students acquire the melody of the language. All four s kills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening) are worked on from the beginning.EVALUATION although the teacher does not have to give a formal test, she/he assesses student learning all the time. One criterion of whether or not students have learned is their ability to transfer what they have been studying to new contexts. The teacher may never give a formal test. He/she assesses students learning all the time. Continuous monitoring by the teacher is essential.PERSONAL OPINION Depending on my own teaching and learning experience, too much repetition does not help students. If the students are familiar with their teachers technique, they know that the teacher will repeat the subject-matter once again. Thus, they do not pay enough attention to their teachers talk. On the other hand, if the students know that their teacher will not repeat anymore, they will listen to him/her carefully.Another principle that I agree with is less teacher interference. If the teacher helps only when it is asked, then, that help will be more valuable. Sometimes teachers like me tend to give extra information when students ask something and of course this tires us too much.Therefore students do not make any effort to take the responsibility of their learning.Advocates of the Silent Way go through that more important than the techniques and more important even than the language learning results, is the process, the change that occurs in individuals. This includes understanding and tolerance of another and acceptance of others as contributors to ones own life.TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSEBACKGROUND Total Physical Response (TPR) is a method developed by Dr. James J. Asher, a professor old of psychology at San Jos State University, to aid learning second languages. The method became popular in the 1970s and attracted the attention or allegiance of some teachers, but it has not received generalized support from mainstream educators.Language is primarily oral. It is just like the acquisition of native language. Learners first listen (silent period), then oral output starts. Oral communication is crucial. Skillful use of imperatives by the instructor can be helpful for the acquisition of many vocabulary items and grammatical structures. Asher views the verb and particularly the verb in the imperative as the central linguistic motif around which language use and learning are organized.ADVANTAGES It is fun and easy so students will enchant the lessons. It does not require a great deal of preparation on the part of the teacher. It is a good tool for learning vocabulary. Class size does not need to be a problem. There is no age barrier.DISADVANTAGES TPR is reduced to the imperative form. TPR is more useful at beginners. It is not a very original method. Students are not given the opportunity to express their own views and thoughts in a creative way. It is limited, since everything cannot be explained with this method. It must be combined with other approaches.TEACHER ROL E the teacher has an active role in this method. He decides what to teach, which materials to use and how they are to be presented. It is important to underline that the teachers role is not simply to teach. His task is offering opportunities for learning. The cognitive map of the target language that each student creates in their mind is going to depend on the way the teacher presents the materials. Teachers should take parents as their model. At the beginning, there will be wide tolerance towards the mistakes students make. If the teacher is constantly interrupting and correcting, students will not be back up to talk. They will be inhibited. At first, teachers do not correct children when they begin to speak.STUDENT ROLE learners have the roles of listeners and performers. First, they must listen to what the teacher says. Then, they are expected to respond physically to those commands given by the teacher.METHODOLOGY The key for successful language learning is the reduction of st ress, such as the first language acquisition (stress-free environment). Listen attentively and respond physically to commands given by the teacher. They are encouraged to speak when they facial expression ready to speak. Performing physical actions in the target language as a mean of making input comprehensive and minimizing stress grammar is studied in an inductive way. Vocabulary and grammar are introduced through imperatives.Some of the techniques used are Commands ( sit down, skip, close your eyes), Role reversal Students command their teacher and classmates to perform actions, Action sequence The teacher may give three connected commands (e.g. Point to the door, walk to the door, and touch the door).L1 USAGE The method is introduced in the students L1. After the introduction, rarely would the mother tongue be used. Meaning is made through body movements.L2 USAGE Teacher speaks only in the foreign language, while the students use it only when they are ready.LISTENING, SPEAKING, READING AND WRITING Natural order of skills1. Listening (Very important during the silent period).2. Speaking (teacher should not force students to produce the language especially during the silent period they are expected to produce the target language voluntarily)3. Reading4. WritingEVALUATION Teachers will know immediately whether or not students understand by observing heir students actions. Formal evaluations can be conducted simply by commanding individual students to perform a series of actions. As students become more advanced, their performance can become the basis for evaluation.PERSONAL OPINION This is a very useful method to use with all students (children, young and adult students), but only in the first stages of the foreign language learning. I completely agree with learn the foreign language in a non- stress environment, because this is a key factor of the learning. Students learn divulge in a relaxing atmosphere, like children learn their mother tongue. The kind o f activities that the teacher can use is wide and dont require any language answer of the students until they are ready to do that. But teacher has to bear in mind that this method is not enough when students are in a high level. In that case, students need more communicative activities.SUGGESTOPEDIABACKGROUND Suggestopedia is a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. It is used in different fields, but mostly in the field of foreign language learning. Lozanov has claimed that by using this method a teachers students can learn a language more or less three to five times as quickly as through conventional teaching methods.The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as the method improved, it has focused more on desuggestive learning and now is often called desuggestopedia. Suggestopedia is a mixing of the words suggestion and pedagogy.ADVANTAGES improver oral proficiency and lower classroom anxi ety. The use of music, relaxing, pleasing and stimulating environmental set-up, motivated and powerful service people (teachers) giving positive messages with their sweet appearance and never-ending energy so it has the potential to increase motivation, among the learners, to try and use the product, which is English hereDISADVANTAGES The first weakness of this method is that the techniques may not work well in all the learners and cultures. It is not a practical method as teachers face the problem of the availability of music and comfortable chairsLozanov refers in a number of occasions to the importance of memorization, excluding any reference to comprehension and creative problem solving. In fact language is not only about the power of the mind to memorize. Its about understanding, interacting and producing novel utterances in different unpredictable situations.TEACHER ROLE Teacher is the authority. Learners learn better if they get the information from a reliable authority. Stu dents must trust and respect that authority.STUDENT ROLE Students play a childs role (infantilization). They adopt a new identity (new name, job, family, etc.). As they feel more secure, they can be less inhibited.METHODOLOGY Vocabulary is emphasised. Claims about the success of the method often focus on the large number of words that can be acquired. Grammar is taught explicitly but minimally. Explicit grammar rules are provided in L1. Dialogues are used with their translations in L1 on the opposite side. Texts with literary value are used. The textbook posters are used for peripheral learning. Some of the techniques used areClassroom set up dim lights, soft music, cushioned armchairs, and posters on the walls. positivistic SuggestionDirect Suggestion The teacher tells students they are going to be successful to create self-confidence.Indirect Suggestion This is provided by music and comfortable physical conditions of the classroom.Peripheral Learning Posters, lists, charts, texts, paintings, and graphs are hung on the walls of the classroom. Students learn from these although their attentions are not directly on these materials.Visualization Students are asked to close their eyes and concentrate on their breathing. Then the tea

Cheating and Plagiarism - The Path to Self-destruction :: Argumentative Persuasive Essays

Plagiarism - The Path to Self-destruction Why do so many citizenry use 123HelpMe.com simply to plagiarize other peoples writing? Is it even possible that someone cannot write their own essay, or that someone cannot read a book of any length? If you plagiarize, arnt you sentencing yourself to failure? And if you cannot get ahead entropy, arent you opening yourself to attacks from the System? I know many students who use sites such as 123HelpMe.com to gather research - steal other peoples ideas and papers. Yet it still amazes me that people could be so nave and lazy. Think about it in high school, you are already expected to know whatever material youve been taught (hopefully). If you cannot get by dint of high school without cheating, how hygienic will you do in college? Professors check whether you have cheated, and you are required to write lengthy papers based on detailed research, which is not present on many Internet paper mills and notes sites. If you cannot r ead, write, and think on your own, you are doomed. Maybe not now, maybe not during your high school career, but eventually, you will flunk a class or get expelled for cheating. If your job requires you to write essays or gather information, and you cheat (gather information without citing it and getting permission) you will be sued and fired. During high school and college, you are more likely to hurt your grade than to get into serious trouble. (However, if your paper sounds too well written, or if a teacher finds that you stole information, you can still be expelled.) Lets face it Cliffs Notes arent the Holy Grail of research. If you read Cliffs Notes or Monarch Notes or 123HelpMe.com essays, you are bound to miss important expatiate. Any decent teacher will check whether you read a book, and to do so, he will ask you details and concepts from the work that you did not read. Cliffs Notes, shortchange you there are few concepts and almost no details in those. Monarch Notes only have concepts. And most the free essays on 123HelpMe.com are filled typos and inaccuracies. Of course, one must pay a small fee to access the great and excellent essays on 123HelpMe.

Life of a Slave on the Plantation Essay -- History Slaves African Amer

Life of a Slave on the PlantationAfrican slavery started at the 16th century and ended in the 19th century. Slave life was the most brutal and disrespected period of America. When Africans first stepped foot on the slave ships coming to America things were bad. The white reality beat, raped, and treated the low-spirited men like animals. Life on the plantation wasnt any better. The slaves didnt work for a paycheck, they worked for their lives. The black man had difficulties adapting to the environment, learning another language, and being a monogamous. Most slaves came from the West African region. Disease, frailty and viciousness, played a heavy part on of slaves dying on the ships. The slave ships landed in Maryland, Virginia, or Carolina. Once the slaves reached land they had to adjust to the environment in America. Adapting to the new country meantEuropeans and Africans would encounter varieties of microorganisms remote to them and would bring with them varieties that were new to America. So with red, white, and black men merging in this place, their bodies would have to make adjustments. (Nathan Irvin 58)Europeans had trouble adapting to the shorelines. The Africans were amused by the illness of the Europeans. African immigrant wasnt as vulnerable to the shoreline, because they were adapted to the shorelines in West Africa. They were most vulnerable to the malaria parasite. In time, they adapted to the parasite. Even though the African had some defenses, their body essential the sickle cell trait. Other fatal diseases were yellow fever, which is carried by mosquito and smallpox, a contagious disease carried by a human host. All white and black newcomers had to adapt to the new microorganisms coming into the country. It was hard to make medicine for the slaves, because they didnt have the same herbs or plants in America. Communication was a necessary quill between the Africans and the Europeans. To increase communications and reduce confusion, a lan guage called linguae francae was developed. This is a blend of Portuguese, French and English. The slave owners and traders mixed the African tribes. The mixture of tongues helped make a new language. Children found it easy to mouth new sounds for old meanings. Older Africans were concerned that they were not being understood while trying to communicate in the new language. Some settlers didn... ... a dirt floor or a wooden floor with cold air seeping through the cracks. Cabins usually had iii to eight people living in one room. School life for the slaves was forbidden. The classes usually took place in an abandon one-room building or a church. The children sit on either benches or a log. They didnt learn off of any blackboard or maps. Students learned how to write and read out of the new England Primer.In Conclusion, the punishment of black slaves was no joke. To me there is nothing that the white man can say to me or give to me to make up for the brutality of my ancestors. Toda y we do not appreciate our freedom, we take advantage of it. If the white man took our freedom away only a small percent of us will survive. To me slavery was pure evil. Slavery was the cause of the Civil War deaths. America was built on the blood sweat and tears of slavery. If the white man didnt have our help to raise their daughter or son they wouldnt have survive. When the white man says today black man fiat is lazy. I think to myself about how my ancestors help raise their kids. How slaves were in their fields picking their cotton, feeding their kids and doing their housework.