Character Analysis of Holden Caulfield - 844 Words

Character Analysis In the beginning of The Catcher in the Rye, we see one type of person in Holden Caulfield. By the end of the book, we see a whole new person. How is it that one person can change as much in a short time period? They change by the experiences they go through. Holden went through a lot of experiences in a short period of time especially, and also in his past history. In the beginning of the novel, Holden has just come back from a fencing game in New York. He has also been kicked out from Pencey Prep. To us it seems Holden is a troubled boy, after we learn that he is also failing all his classes except English. As the story goes on and he’s talking to his old teacher Spencer, we learn that he is actually sort of smart,†¦show more content†¦He wants to keep all children safe the way he could not protect Allie from dying, but he wants to protect all other children from that same fate. Holden grows throughout the book from a somewhat immature kid to a mature, wise, grownup boy who realizes that taking care of his sister is more important than getting yelled at by his parents for getting kicked out of another school. We see lots of character traits expressed and they show up between different events thatShow MoreRelatedHolden Caulfield Character Analysis Essay1249 Words   |  5 Pages In â€Å"The Catcher in the Rye† by J.D. Salinger, the main character Holden Caulfield is a nervous and unhappy dropout. After being kicked out of his prestigious high school, he goes to New York City and roams the streets for three days searching for both innocence and adulthood. While he holds a hatred for â€Å"phonies†, people he sees as fakes or cheats, he himself can be portrayed as a phony. Holden admires certain qualities in a person. He likes people who are honest, intelligent and open. He alsoRead MoreHolden Caulfield Character Analysis721 Words   |  3 PagesHolden Caulfield is alone for the first time, forcing him to not only see the reality of everlasting corruption, but also show him he stands alone in wanting to preserve young innocence. Throughout the book Holden is always putting forth efforts to help everyone, further pushing him astray from societys normalities. While some may say that Holden is always distraught because of his own reckless behavior, I say Holden is trying to counter reckless behavior that is being forced upon the young peopleRead MoreHolden Caulfield Character Analysis1730 Words   |  7 PagesThe Catcher in the Rye, the protagonist, Holden Caulfield, undergoes an immense psychological change where he transforms from youth to maturity. The major conflict in the novel which held Holden back from progressing into adulthood had to do with the death of his younger brother, Allie. The way Holden expresses himself and all of the decisions he has made can all be related back to that experience which he has never been able to cope with. As a result, Holden spends the majority of his time alone whichRead MoreHolden Caulfield Character Analysis1368 Words   |  6 PagesIn J. D. Salinger’s novel, The Catcher in the Rye, we are introduced to an intriguing character named Holden Caulfield. In this narrative, Holden summarizes what happens to him in the past, over a period of three days, starting from when he is in Pencey Prep, an expensive boarding school in Agerstown, Pennsylvania. During this time, Holden goes through many internal hardships and dilemmas, mainly focusing on his view of society and people around him, acting â€Å"phony†. This feeling could be explainedRead MoreCharacter Analysis Of Holden Caulfield1110 Words   |  5 PagesIn the book, The Catcher in the Rye, the most character Holden Caulfiel d has strange behavioral personalities. It turns into a lot of and a lot of obvious that Holden, an extended method of being sensible, has clouded judgment as he rides an associate emotional roller coaster of mood ups and downs. in these strains, its straightforward that his wide selection of non-public flaws like his distrustful and suspicious of individuals, depressive, and unreasonable attitudes and thoughts come back fromRead MoreHolden Caulfield Character Analysis Essay895 Words   |  4 Pagesreally means something to us. In Catcher in the Rye, written by J.D. Salinger, Holden Caulfield is a 16 year old young man that has gone through some rough times. With a little brother, Allie, that died of cancer at the age of 11, A big brother, D.B., who became big writing childrens books so he left for hollywood soon after Allie’s death. Holden has been dropped out of three schools, and is currently attending Pency. Holden doesnt have much to be happy about in his life, not real ly much to live forRead MoreCharacter Analysis Of Holden Caulfield s The Catcher Of The Rye 1733 Words   |  7 PagesCatcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger, Holden Caulfield is faced with multiple â€Å"phonies† that divert him from those he really holds affection for. Throughout the novel Holden shows disgust for certain characters but his ability to build relationships of intimacy are most eminent. Through Allie Caulfield, Holden is able to make a more personal connection. Seeing as how he is now dead, Allie is a savior in the eyes’ of Holden when he is in the time of need. Phoebe Caulfield, Holden’s ten year old sister, sharesRead MoreAnalysis Of Characters And Themes Of The Catcher Rye 1537 Words   |  7 Pages Analysis of Characters and Themes in The Catcher in the Rye J.D. Salinger was born in 1919 to a wealthy Manhattan family. He grew up in the same social conditions as Holden Caulfield does in The Catcher in the Rye. The last thing Salinger cared about was being a successful student because he was very lazy, without care for his responsibilities and tasks. Salinger flunked out of many prep schools, and his parents sent him to a military academy named Valley Forge in Pennsylvania, where he graduatedRead MoreCatcher in the Rye- Holden as a Dynamic Character Essay example660 Words   |  3 PagesAlexa Noelle Mrs. Mow American Studies 27 March 2012 Analysis of Holden Caulfield Throughout the novel The Catcher in the Rye Holden sees the world as an evil and corrupt place, however it is clear that he gradually comes to the conclusion he cannot change it. The first instance demonstrating Holden’s progression is when he sees the profanity written all over Phoebe’s school. In this moment he finally understands that it is inevitable to enter adulthood and realizes the impossibility to tryRead MoreAnalysis of JD Salingers The Catcher in the Rye1594 Words   |  6 PagesAnalysis of JD Salingers The Catcher in the Rye J. D. Salinger wanted to write a story, that many believe is at least partially autobiographical, about the angst of being a teen age boy trying to navigate the transition between adolescence and adulthood. The story has been a constant in lists about the best American novels written in the twentieth century, and it has received much criticism also. It is not that people do not believe that Caulfield would have cussed as much as he does or that

General Contractor Licensing For Virginia - 953 Words

General Contractor Licensing for Virginia http://generalcontractorlicensecenter.com/general-contractor-licensing-in-virginia/ In the state of Virginia, you must obtain your contractor’s license from the Department of Professional and Occupational Regulation Board if you play to do any construction work totaling $1,000 or higher. Construction work can also include demolition, home improvement, or home repair projects. Your contractor’s license will be based on your experience and the size of the projects you plan to undertake. The board will determine what caps are placed upon your business accordingly. Local laws for specific cities and counties may also apply. What Kind of License to Get? There are three distinct license classifications in the state of Virginia depending on which criteria your company meets. You must apply for the classification that best suits your business, as well as a specialty classification that notifies the board which specific type of contracting work your company specializes in. Class C License Class C License is the easiest contractor’s license to obtain in Virginia. This requires 2 years’ worth of experience but does not require any exam or a specific net worth limit for your business. You will be able to take projects that range in price from $1,000 to $10,000 or whatever price you select, as long as your annual earnings remain under $150,000. Class B License Class B License ranks in the middle of the three types in terms of difficultyShow MoreRelatedThe Literature On Pay For Play5418 Words   |  22 Pagesjudicial and scholarly opinions related to the Sherman Antitrust Act and its implications to the NCAA. 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Gender Subgroup Self-Categorization And Gender Role Self-Concept

Question: With reference to selected feminist theories, critically discuss the argument that both sex and gender are socially constructed. Is this a helpful way to understand how femininities and masculinities are constructed today? Answer: Evolution of Femininities and Masculinities in the society: This assignment is critically based on the argument that both the sex and gender are socially created and their use in feminist work. This assignment also discusses the concepts of femininity and masculinity in analytical perspective. These concepts are used by the society to study the social behavior. The study of gender is having a wide range of framework that helps to research in the study of the behavior. The concept of gender was first developed by Iill Matthews (1984), in the research of construction of femininity. According to this research work, every community distinguishes between the men and women. Thus, the concept of gender determines the role of men and women in the society and selects a particular pattern in their relationship. The patriarchy concept clears the view of male dominance in the society. The concept of gender shows the difference in behavior of men and women in the society and basically analysis of their difference from the biological and social constructio n point of view (Athenstaedt, et. al., 2007). The concept of femininity and masculinity determines a particular male as masculine in behavior and a female as a feminine in behavior. The word gender and sex is used by various feminist writers and researchers to show the biological difference between female and male and social difference between woman and man. Many feminist sociologists convey that there is a need to understand the concept of sex and gender in a larger perspective. Sex The term sex determines the physiological and biological difference between female and male sex. The word sex shows the physical differentiation between the biological female and a biological male. Whenever a child is born, the label of boy or a girl is done on the basis of their sex. The basis of such characterization is the genital differentiation between the female and male. Most people are born with the biological differentiation with one sex or another, except some ambiguous cases. However, it had been evident that after being label as a boy or girl the new born child is socially characterized according to their gender with specific roles and expectations. The biological males are made to learn to act in masculine way and also socially act in that way. The biological female is also learned to act in a feminine way and also socially behave in that way. According to feminist writer Simone de Beauvoir one is not born a man but becomes one. One is not born a woman but becomes o ne (Beres, 2014). Feminist writers like Judith Butler have criticized the views that there is no difference between the female child and male child at the time of birth except their reproductive organs and genitals. The gender construction is made by the society depending on their genitals. To some extent the psychological and social construction has been made by the biological difference. According to Judith Butler, the sex is natural thing but the gender is superimposed upon it by the society following some secondary constructions. Butler further said that sex is itself a social category. Therefore, from his point of view, the difference between female and male is made by the society and it is a social distinction. It is a specific way of dividing and perceiving the difference between female and male. Butler argues that though sex is biological, the term is made by social constructions (Beres, 2014). The biological definition and meaning of sex helps to explain the basic difference in the sex. Butler was concerned about the fact that biology being a part of science shows a social system of representation, as there are many differences among various human beings and apart from that only some basic difference have create divisions between the human beings. In other words, this idea has divided the human beings into two parts, as even though there are differences in the two sexes, there is no rational or logical reason for this. Judith Butler explains that sex is an analytical as well as a normative category. It determines what woman and men are and what they ought to do. It specifies the behavior of women and men. Therefore, Butler concludes that sex is social category but some feminist writers are against it and basically regard sex as a biological term in the nature (Boxer, 2007). As per the research work in sociology, many researchers believe that each individual has one sex, sexuality and one gender. Often the sex means sexuality; it may refer to physiology or biology. A man is assumed to be masculine male and a woman a feminine female. When a child is born, they are categorized as per their gender, thus, is essential to have a clear idea of gender. Gender The term gender became famous in the early 1970 from the feminist writings. In social term, gender describes the difference between the men and women, as what men can do and what women can do or cannot do. Thus, it can be said that gender is an analytical category in the society that is constructed upon the biological difference between men and women. Gender also differentiates the difference between men and women in terms of behavior that is masculine and feminine (Connell, 2005). Feminist writers consider gender as social construction rather than biological difference, which is made by the patriarchal society. Some researchers suggest that the physical and mental difference creates the biological difference in women and men. They also believe that men are biologically men are mentally and physically stronger than women. However, other researchers argue that the biological difference between women and men has been exaggerated and the difference is created by the patriarchal system that determines men superior to women. Thus, women become dependent on the men in the society. Ann Oakley in the book Sex, Gender and Society explored the word gender. Oakley said that in the Western culture the role of women in the society has been determined as mother and house wife, and this role is given to them because of their biological structure. The Western Culture also believes that if these traditional roles are changed, it could cause damage to the basic framework of the society. Thus, Oakley concluded that these views of roles of women help the patriarchal society to maintain their basic values (Folbre, 2009). Simon de Beauvoir in the book The Second Sex explained that the gender difference in the patriarchal society makes the men superior to women through their role as bread winner. The men are given a power in the family as well as in the society. The gender difference is created in such a way that the men are superior and women are always dependent on them. Women position in the society is always as an outsider and the civilization is highly masculine (Mirchandani, 2006). Shulamith Firestone in the book The Dialectics of Sex stated that patriarchy society had exploited the capacity of women to reproduce and determined it as their weakness. The writer further suggested women that in order to break away these traditional barriers technological advances way should be used to free them from the burden of childbirth. The writer advocated breaking down the biological bond between child and mother by creating communes where nuclear family and monogamy does not exists. Some feminist accepts the suggestions of Firestones mainly because the use of technology is still in the hands of men (Fox, 2011). However, the cultural feminist disagrees, and asks whether the difference between women and men are only cultural or it also has a biological perspective. These feminist prefers the value of motherhood as the evidence of natural disposition and would to relinquish it. Ann Oakley said that there is constant link between the sex and gender, and gave the example that in the application forms, people are asked to mention their gender instead of sex. In feminist writing, it is inevitable that there is close connection between gender and the biology or the nature. Recent writings on gender and sex have mentioned that feminist has very much dependent on polarizing gender and sex, determining that they are socially created and could be changed. This discussion is totally based on the fact that how every individual understands various consequences of biological facts with their own cultural values. This also argues that biology contributes to be behavior characteristics of any individual. Movia Gatens has said, The male body and the female body have quite different social value and significance and cannot but help have a marked effect on male and female consciousness (Fox, 2011). The body structure of women have huge role in citing ones gender. The writer gave the example of menstruation and said that women are considered weak due to this factor. The masculinity is not valued unless it is biologically male. Therefore, the male body considers them to be superior in our traditional culture. Judith Butler explained that gender introduces the idea involuntarily functions in the dominant discourses of hetero reality. The writer further states Sex or gender distinction suggests a radical discontinuity between sexed bodies and culturally constructed gender (Fox, 2011). This view asks the question the procedure of constructing gender identity. It is very difficult to accept the rigid difference between gender and sex, whether it is entirely cultural or biological. There is a constant change is the concept of individuals as the gender or sex is a social or biological forces. The debate of gender and sex will continue in favor of biological differences, whereas feminist writers will continue to claim gender and sex as socially created by the institution of religion, family marriage, caste and etc. It has been noted that in past few decades the role of women in the society as well their position in the society has drastically changed and gave new dimensions to feminist writers in terms of gender and sex discussions (Jo, 2014). Deconstructing Sex and Gender It is needed to rethink the concept of sex and gender distinctly in order to determine gender categories as they are socially constructed in various ways. Gender is a vital category that determines the major social life of an individual all aspects of social life. Thus, society has created various bodies and major institutions of society like economy, polity, ideology, family and etc. For any individual, the sex is categorized at the time of birth depending upon the individuals genital. Every gender has its own gender identity, marital and procreative status, gendered sexual orientation, a gendered personality structure, gender at work, gender attitudes and beliefs and respective family responsibility or roles (Jongryul Choi, 2010). These social factors are congruent and consistent with the biological structure of any individual. The normal combination could not be consistent with one another and also with the components of sex and gender; however, these factors could not match up wi th each other and have a binary divide. The official needs of categorizing of infants in the society into a clear label of being a girl or a boy, soon after the time of birth is sometimes considered as unwanted sex assignment. Sex change operations are common in infants who have anomalous genitalia. Feminist are aware of many cases of physiological and biological sexes. The importance of the society in categorizing the sex of infants as female or male shows the practice of clear sex differentiation. Apart from these critical explorations, the difference in sex could be considered as natural process that is in reality constructed by the society (Lucal, 2012). Masculinity and Femininity The gender or sex differences raises the issues of female and male, feminine and masculine, female linked with femininity and male linked with masculinity. These biological constructions create difference between women and men that further rises to social descriptions. Feminist writers believe that biological difference increases the social descriptions of femininity and masculinity. The difference in the individuals character is observed by patters of difference that either feminine or masculine. For example, pink is regarded as a feminine color and blue is regarded as masculine color. Masculine is also regarded as tough and strong. The feminine character is associated with soft and weak character and various other traits that categorize the feminine and masculine gender. The social outcome of being male or female is determined by the masculinity and femininity respectively (Paltasingh and Lingam, 2014). The characteristics and traits that describes difference in women and men, give s more advantage to men over women. Moria Gatens stated that masculinity is not valued until and unless it is performed by biological male. Thus, the male body has certain characteristics and traits of maleness or masculinity. Thus, in human being, male is determined as the supreme. In the same way, femininity is categorized to biological female. The female body has certain characteristics and traits of femaleness or femininity. As per the research of Judith Butler, any concept gives idea about gender performance in terms of femininity and masculinity. Therefore, the performance of gender has entered the society and the dominance of patriarchy gender has evolved at different levels of society as well as in the families. Every individual enters into this gender category of feminine and masculine right from the time of birth (Lucal, 2012). The concept of femininity and masculinity has emerged in the feminist writings showing the difference between women and men. Some of the researcher s states that the difference between women and men are biologically created, whereas some of the researchers disagrees and states that women and men differences are socially constructed. Thus, the body structure of men and masculinity acquires the characteristics of male. The body structure of female and femininity acquires the characteristics of female. In modern writings, there is a concept that the social construction of femininity and masculinity are less distinct. There is wide shift in human beings about the control of gender by social or biological forces. In the present days, women lives have changed rapidly along with their expectations and their responsibilities or roles have broadened. Therefore, it shows how flexible is the category of femininity (Richardson, 2010). The feminist activists are concern about the status of women across the society and try to improve their present conditions. They are committed to understand the traditional aspects of the society and analyze the womens position in the society. However, there are different approaches given by the feminist activists to improve the status of women in the society, they are: Liberal feminism Socialist feminism Radical feminism Eco feminism Marxist feminism New-wave feminism Condition feminism Liberal feminism The liberal feminism was started in the 18th century and it was called the Enlightenment period. In this period there was a strong believe in the individuality and rationality and also known as the time of reason. The period was rejected the religious dogmas and automatic government. Many topics aroused at that time and the crucial topic was status of women in society. Individuality means the freedom of doing what one wishes to without interference from others. Feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft said Women are first and foremost human being rational creatures and not sexual being. They are capable of governing themselves by reason. Hence, if women are to be denied natural right, then it must be proved that they are not rational creatures (Richardson, 2010). Socialist feminism The socialist feminism is having three types, the Marxian, radical and phenomenological. From the Marxian thoughts social feminism was started and was connected with the radical feminism. Social feminism is also stressed to improve status of women in the society and thus, it also phenomenology describing womens perspective. The main goal of social feminism is to get combination of precision and breadth, and achieve all forms of oppression to explore womens experiences. Hence, the stress is on finding problems of women and then solving them by developing a common agenda for the improving their status in the society (Mazur and McBride, 2007). Radical feminism The radical feminism is a type of philosophy that emphasizes on the roots of patriarchal inequality between women and men or mainly social domination of men over women. The radical feminism believes that patriarchy society has divided the rights, power and privileges by gender and thus, has privileged men and oppressed women. The radical feminist rejects the social organization as it is patriarchy in origin. However, the radical feminism is not against the men but opposes patriarchy. Therefore, they want to change the culture of the society that eradicates the patriarchal society (Vashisth and Kumar, 2014). Summary The concept of gender and sex are used by socialist or feminist writers to study the social behavior of the society. The concept of sex, gender, femininity and masculinity and patriarchy are essential words in gender studies. In this assignment the discussion was about the concept of sex and gender studies. The concept of sex determines the physiological and biological difference between female and male. The feminist writers accept the basic biological difference between women and men but argue that the characteristics and traits of biological female and biological male is constructed by the society. The gender defines the social construction difference between female and male that created by the patriarchal society. In recent feminist writings they accept that the rigid difference between gender and sex as entire cultural or biological is difficult. The gender or the sex are terms that raises the issues of female or male, feminine or masculine, female connected with femininity and male connected with masculinity. These constructions show the biological differences between women and men into social descriptions. Feminist writers state that a biological difference raises the social descriptions of femininity and masculinity and they used the term patriarchy society to refer the social system that is dominated by the men over women. They had given various theories that show the dependence of women upon men in the patriarchy society. The feminist approaches are concerned about the dependence of women in the society and are intended to develop strategies to establish equality and independence of women in the society. Therefore, from this assignment it can be said that the concept of sex and gender was merely constructed by the society on the basis of biological differences between women and men. References: Athenstaedt, U., Heinzle, C. and Lerchbaumer, G. (2007). Gender Subgroup Self-Categorization and Gender Role Self-Concept. Sex Roles, 58(3-4), pp.266-278. Beres, M. (2014). Rethinking the concept of consent for anti-sexual violence activism and education. Feminism Psychology, 24(3), pp.373-389. Boxer, M. (2007). Rethinking the Socialist Construction and International Career of the Concept "Bourgeois Feminism". The American Historical Review, 112(1), pp.131-158. Connell, R. (2005). Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept. Gender Society, 19(6), pp.829-859. Folbre, N. (2009). Varieties of Patriarchal Capitalism. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State Society, 16(2), pp.204-209. Fox, M. (2011). Prototype theory: An alternative concept theory for categorizing sex and gender?. NASKO, 3(1). Jo, J. (2014). Haraway's Cyborg Feminism from the Perspective of Practice Theory : On the Concept of Material-Semiotic Practices. jstc, 30, p.1. Jongryul Choi, (2010). A Society of Unconditional Expenditure 2 : Implosion of the Patriarchal Family and Eroticization of Society. , 8(1), pp.128-173. Lucal, B. (2012). Book Review: Sex, Drag and Male Roles: Investigating Gender as Performance. Gender Society, 26(4), pp.678-680. Mazur, A. and McBride, D. (2007). State Feminism since the 1980s: From Loose Notion to Operationalized Concept. Pol Gender, 3(04). Mirchandani, R. (2006). "Hitting is not Manly": Domestic Violence Court and the Re-Imagination of the Patriarchal State. Gender Society, 20(6), pp.781-804. Paltasingh, T. and Lingam, L. (2014). 'Production' and 'Reproduction' in Feminism: Ideas, Perspectives and Concepts. IIM Kozhikode Society Management Review, 3(1), pp.45-53. Richardson, J. (2010). Feminism, Property in the Person and Concepts of Self. British Journal of Politics International Relations, 12(1), pp.56-71. Vashisth, A. and Kumar, A. (2014). The Evolution of Feminism: Comparison of Adaptation and By-Product Concepts. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 24(3), pp.267-280.

The Golden Rule free essay sample

Since I was first able to talk, I have heard about the â€Å"Golden Rule†. I have constantly been playing recreational sports since I was four years old, and one of the coaches rules was always treat others the way you want to be treated. When I got a little older, my dad expanded that to do unto others as you would have them do unto you. After thinking about this Golden Rule, I realized that it is absolutely the most essential rule to live by, and certainly lives up to its name. If you learn to respect everyone you come across, the respect will be reciprocated, and that will make you both better people. Hatred accomplishes little, except for deepened wounds and hurt feelings. I like to pride myself on the fact that there are very few people who dislike me, and I make a point of not upsetting anyone. Of course, disappointing or hurting people is inevitable, but by treating others with sympathy, and respect, they appreciate my effort and subsequently, return the favor. We will write a custom essay sample on The Golden Rule or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Hebrew Torahs version of this saying is love your neighbor as yourself. Being Jewish, I hear that verse frequently, and it always rings true. You cannot succeed in life by being an inconsiderate or harsh person. People will lose respect for you, and treat you in much the same way. Constantly I am reminded of this pertinent saying, and I make an effort to live my life accordingly. Evil and animosity in people cannot be completely prevented, but by killing them with kindness and treating them the way you want to be treated, theyre likely to soften up. I feel like the Golden Rule is every bit as important as the name suggests, and thus is the most important life lesson I have learned.

Banded Sea Krait Facts (Laticauda colubrina)

Banded Sea Krait Facts (Laticauda colubrina) The banded sea krait is a type of venomous sea snake found in the tropical water of the Indo-Pacific Ocean. Although this snakes venom is ten times more potent than that of a rattlesnake, the animal is nonaggressive and only known to bite in self defense. The most common name for the species is the banded sea krait, but its also called the yellow-lipped sea krait. The scientific name Laticauda colubrina gives rise to another common name: colubrine sea krait. While the animal may be called the banded sea snake, its better to call it a krait to avoid confusion with true sea snakes. Fast Facts: Banded Sea Krait Scientific Name: Laticauda colubrinaCommon Names: Banded sea krait, yellow-lipped sea krait, colubrine sea kraitBasic Animal Group: ReptileSize: 34 inches (male); 56 inches (female)Weight: 1.3-4.0 poundsLifespan: Unknown. Most snakes can reach 20 years of age under ideal conditions.Diet: CarnivoreHabitat: Indo-Pacific regionPopulation: Stable, probably numbering in the thousandsConservation Status: Least Concern Description A banded sea krait can be distinguished from other krait species by its yellow snout and from true sea snakes by its flattened body and nostril position. Sirachai Arunrugstichai / Getty Images The banded sea snake has a black head and black-striped body. Its upper surface is blue-gray, with a yellow belly. This snake can be distinguished from related kraits by its yellow upper lip and snout. Like other kraits, it has a flattened body, paddle-shaped tail, and nostrils on the sides of its snout. In contrast, an aquatic sea snake has a paddle tail, but a rounded body and nostrils near the top of its head. Banded sea krait females are substantially larger than males. Females average 142 cm (56 in) in length, while males average 87 cm (34 in) in length. On average, an adult male weighs about 1.3 pounds, while a female weighs around 4 pounds. Habitat and Distribution Banded sea krait (Laticauda colubrina) distribution. Sn1per Banded sea kraits are semiaquatic snakes found in shallow coastal waters of the eastern Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean. While juvenile snakes spend most of their time in the water, adult kraits spend about half their time on land. The snakes hunt in water, but must return to digest their food, shed their skin, and reproduce. Banded sea kraits exhibit philopatry, which means they always return to their home islands. Diet and Behavior The head and tail of the banded sea krait look similar, which helps deter potential predators. Placebo365 / Getty Images Banded sea kraits are perfectly adapted to hunt eels, supplementing their diet with small fish and crabs. The snake has never been observed feeding on land. The kraits slender body helps it weave through corals. The snakes tail may be exposed, but the threat from predators is reduced because the tail looks much like the head. Banded sea kraits are solitary nocturnal hunters, but they travel with hunting parties of yellow goatfish and bluefin trevally, which capture prey fleeing from the snake. Banded sea kraits display sexual dimorphism in hunting behavior. Males tend to hunt moray eels in shallow water, while females hunt conger eels in deeper water. Males tend to make multiple kills on a hunt, while females typically only take one prey per hunt. Most animals leave sea kraits alone, but they are preyed upon by sharks and other large fish and sea birds when the snakes surface. In some countries, people catch the snakes to eat them. Venomous Bite Because they spend so much time on land and are attracted to lights, encounters between kraits and humans are common but surprisingly uneventful. Banded sea kraits are highly venomous, but only bite in self-defense if grabbed. In New Caledonia, the snakes have the common name  tricot rayà ©Ã‚  (stripey  sweater) and are considered safe enough to play with children. Bites most often occur when fishermen try to untangle the snakes from fishing nets. The venom contains a powerful neurotoxin that can cause hypertension, cyanosis, paralysis, and potentially death if left untreated. Reproduction and Offspring Banded sea kraits are oviparous; they return to land to mate and lay eggs. Mating occurs in September through December. Males chase the larger, slower females and entwine around her. The males rhythmically contract to produce what are called caudocephalic waves. Copulations takes about two hours, but the mass of snakes may remain entwined for several days. Females deposit up to 10 eggs in a crevice on the land. Only two nests have ever been discovered, so little is known about the how the hatchlings find their way to water. The lifespan of the banded sea krait is unknown. Conservation Status The IUCN classifies the banded sea krait as least concern. The species population is stable and the snake is abundant throughout its range. Significant threats to the snake include habitat destruction, coastal development, and light pollution. While the snake is a human food source, the threat from overharvesting is localized. Coral bleaching may impact the banded sea krait, as it may result in diminished prey abundance. Sources Guinea, Michael L.. Sea snakes of Fiji and Niue. In Gopalakrishnakone, Ponnampalam. Sea Snake Toxicology. Singapore Univ. Press. pp. 212–233, 1994. ISBN 9971-69-193-0.Lane, A.; Guinea, M.; Gatus, J.; Lobo, A. Laticauda colubrina. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN. 2010: e.T176750A7296975. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-4.RLTS.T176750A7296975.enRasmussen, A.R.;and J. Elmberg. Head for my tail: A new hypothesis to explain how venomous sea snakes avoid becoming prey. Marine Ecology. 30 (4): 385–390, 2009. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0485.2009.00318.xShetty, Sohan and Richard Shine. Philopatry and Homing Behavior of Sea Snakes (Laticauda colubrina) from Two Adjacent Islands in Fiji. Conservation Biology. 16 (5): 1422–1426, 2002. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2002.00515.xShine, R.; Shetty, S. Moving in two worlds: aquatic and terrestrial locomotion in sea snakes (Laticauda colubrina, Laticaudidae). Journal of Evolutionary Biology. 14 (2): 338–346, 2001. doi:10.1046/j.14 20-9101.2001.00265.x

Concept of Cardiovascular Diseases in UK

Concept of Cardiovascular Diseases in UK Introduction Cardiovascular disease (CVD) encompasses different blood and heart diseases, for instance, coronary heart diseases, hypertension, rheumatic heart diseases and stroke. These diseases lead to deaths and hospitalization of patients.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Concept of Cardiovascular Diseases in UK specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Biological Causes CVD occurs as a result of clogged arteries due to blood clotting, atherosclerotic plague and wandering clot or rupture of a brain artery. Coronary Artery Disease (CAD), on the other hand, is a disease that results from disorders that lead to a reduction of blood supply to heart muscles (Fawcett, et al 2004). Cardiovascular disease occurs when inner layers of the artery walls grow thick and irregular due to the deposition of fat cholesterol among other substances. The thickening in the artery walls could cause chest pains or breathlessness (Michimi 2008). In most cases, the middle-aged individuals and the old are the ones prone to CVD. CVD could be accelerated by diabetes, obesity, high blood pressure, smoking and physical dormancy. Some of these causes are, however, preventable (Wang 2006). Atherosclerosis is the pathological process during which atheroma, also known as lipid-filled plague, develops within the intima of large and medium sized arteries, including the coronary vessels. Macrophages and vascular smooth muscle cells that accumulate these plagues making them rupture hence triggering platelet activation and thrombus formation. This further causes luminal obstruction and reduction in the blood flow leading to Coronary Artery disease, a composite of cardiovascular disease. Public Health Surveillance and Monitoring A research carried out by P.G Surtees and co-authors sought to determine the relationship between limited mastery (stressful experiences and negative emotions) to cardiovascular diseases. The research focused on 19,0 67 men and women aged 41-80 years, who had no previous heart disease or stroke cases during assessment according to scientists in Cambridge and the UK report (Acton 2011). The research revealed that a total of 791 CVD deaths were recorded up to June during media 11.3 person-years of follow up. In this case, limited mastery of life was linked with the increase in the risk of CVD independent of biological, lifestyle and socioeconomic risk factors (Acton 2011). Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) is said to be the most common cause of deaths in the UK causing around 94,000 deaths every year (Preedy 2011). One in five men and one in seven women will die from CHD in the UK each year according to British Heart Foundation report of 2008. Around 19 per cent of male and 10 per cent of female die prematurely due to the disease totaling the number of premature deaths in the UK to 31,000 as of 2006 according to the report (Preedy 2011).Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's s ee if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The report further showed a high rate of CHD in men than women. 4 per cent of men and 0.5 per cent of women have had a heart attack with over 60 per cent of all cardiovascular deaths in men and 80 per cent in women occurring after the age of 75 according to Stanner (Preedy 2011). Data from the UK shows that CVD is the leading cause of mortality. For instance, in 2003, more than one in three people (38%) died of CVD accounting for about 233,000 deaths (Waring 2006). Heart diseases accounted for the most number 147,500 deaths with 114,000 deaths related to CAD. According to World Health Organization report of 2004, CVD accounts for 1.95 million deaths in the UK every year. Approximately 30% of these deaths occur in patients under 65 years. Coronary Artery Diseases account for half of these deaths while stroke covers just a quarter. With regard to gender, 23% of these deaths in the UK occur in women whi le men stand at 21 % of the deaths caused by cardiovascular diseases. Independently, stroke accounts for 1.28 million deaths yearly. This makes it the second highest cause of death. The report further states that everyone in ten men (11%) dies of stroke complications while over one in six women, translating to 18%, die of the same cause. Most women get anxious and depressed easily hence making them at risk of CDV (Weidner et al 2002). The total number of deaths is, however, in the decrease for both men and women (Michimi 2008). The burdens that CVD causes in the UK Societal effects: The first resultant effect of CVD is death. This brings about premature changes in the family roles with the remaining family members being under pressure to take charge, for instance, when a sole bread winner dies. The sadness that comes with these deaths is also traumatizing especially to the young members of the family (Alexander et al 2000). Population effect: CVD also has an effect on the personal l ife of the patient and procreation. This is because; most patients with CVD do not indulge in sexual intercourse and hence affecting the population growth (Waring 2006). Economic effect: The death of people in the middle-age or advanced age bracket has dangerous implications on the economy. Usually, these people, especially the middle-aged are the driving force of the economy since they have the experience and skills needed for efficiency in work. Those in the advanced age also possess rich skills in the market and some of them are founders of various companies or highly ranked personnel in several business entities (Waring 2006).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Concept of Cardiovascular Diseases in UK specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Financial burden: CDV also causes a burden to the National Health Service, commonly known as NHS. It is expensive to treat CVD ( £ 6.2 billion by 2003). This, therefore, weighs heavi ly on NHS. The cost of informal care, for instance outpatient treatment, was over  £ 4800 in the same year (2003) according to World Health Organization. In total, CVD costs the UK economy over  £ 26 billion a year as the cost of treating the CVD patients (Waring 2006). The economic troubles are also caused by the fact that most of these patients cannot work hence crippling the economy. These patients also require a prolonged medical attention hence leading to increased medical expenses (Waring 2006). Control measures and effectiveness It has been difficult to control the causes of cardiovascular diseases in the UK due to the vested interest in both the political and economical circles. The government, has, however, tried to influence the pattern of consumption mainly through persuading smokers to change their behavior (Calnan 1991). Cigarette is a leading cause of cardiovascular disease. The UK government has taken some measures, due to pressure from the anti-smoking lobby, to help reduce the rate of smoking. Activities of individuals and government-funded lobby groups such as ASH can also be stated as a force that helped the government bow to pressure to enforce some of these policies (Calnan 1991). These efforts have led to tobacco industries accepting government policies and adopting self-regulation and control measures to prevent excessive smoking. Wilkinson states that, in 1984, the British Medical Association initiated an anti-smoking campaign directed at stopping cigarette advertising. The government intended to reduce the rate of cigarette consumption in the UK by enforcing anti-smoking policies. In 1972, for instance, 52 per cent of men and 41 per cent of women in Great Britain were smokers. This percentage fell by 1986, where 35% of men and 31% of women were smokers. According to Townsend, the British government also increased the tax on cigarette in a bid to reduce cigarette consumption. This measure was effective in some sense, in that it led to the increase in the price of cigarette hence making many smokers reduce smoking. According to Townsend, this move led to about half of the total 20 per cent reduction in cigarette smoking.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Health education and publicity of a series of reports on smoking and health prepared by the Royal College of Physicians also helped in the reduction of cigarette consumption. This is said to contribute to the other half of the 20 per cent reduction in smoking. The government’s safer cigarette policy is also quoted as a resultant factor in the reduction of CVD. According to Calnan, many cigarette companies have reduced the amount of tar content in cigarette as a result of the UK government’s restrictions on the level of tar that was to be moved from high to low (Calnan 1991). Reduction in smoking, therefore, helped to reduce cases of CVD (Courtenay et al 2010) hence reducing ill health and prolonging the life of an individual. The Food Standard Agency in the UK set target levels that food industries should adhere to for each food category. This policy was aimed at reducing the amount of salt intake in people (Mancini et al 2011). Campaigns have also been rolled out on T Vs, billboards, buses and magazines to advise people on the need to limit salt consumption in order to avoid ill health. This strategy, that began in 2003 has proven effective, such that much food bought in supermarkets contain 20 to 30 per cent less salt by 2008. Companies such as Unilever, Kellogg’s and Heinz have also reduced salt concentration in their food. The minimal consumption of salt helps in prevention of hypertension which is a cardiovascular disease. People in the UK have also been advised to avoid fatty and sugary foods in order to minimize the rate of diabetes. The organization Diabetes UK recommends that a meal should have vegetables, salad, fruits, one sixth of the plate should contain meat, fish and beans while two sixth of it should have potatoes, pasta and rice. Sucrose can provide 10 per cent of daily energy requirement hence it is not necessary to do away with sugar intake. This control measure has helped people to be wary of their diet hence minimizing the rate of diabetes and heart diseases (Mittal 2005). Conclusion It is, therefore, evidence that increase in cigarette prices, health education and legislative controls over tobacco advertising can lead to reduced in cigarette consumption. The UK should put more emphasis on banning advertisements that are meant to reduce tobacco and alcohol consumption. This measure has led to a reduction in cigarette smoking hence reducing cases of CVD (Calnan 1991). The government has focused on fiscal policy rather than control because it of easier to pursue bureaucratic procedures for tobacco regulation than complex control programs. The UK government has adopted for persuasion and self-regulation as a move to control smoking rather than direct intervention. The effectiveness of the policies that the UK government has adopted is difficult to access. However, there has been a significant reduction over the last ten years in the number of smokers among the population (Calnan 1991). References Lis t Acton, A 2011, Cardiovascular Diseases: Advances in Research and Treatment: Scholarly Edition. Alexander, et al 2000, Nursing Practice: Hospital and Home: The Adult. Elsevier Health Sciences. UK Calnan, M 1991, Prevention Coronary Heart Disease: Prospects, Policies, and Politics. Routledge. UK Courtenay, M et al. 2010, Independent and Supplementary Prescribing: An Essential Guide, Cambridge University Press. Fawcett, et at 2004, Evaluating Community Efforts To Prevent Cardiovascular Diseases. Diane Publishing. USA. Mancini, M et al 2011 Nutritional and Metabolic Bases of Cardiovascular Disease. Wiley Publishers. Mittal, S 2005, Coronary Heart Diseaase in Clinical Practice. Springer. Michimi, A 2008, Spatial and temporal patterns of cardiovascular disease in the United States and England. A comparison of data from the national health surveillance databases, ProQuest LLC. USA. Preedy, V 2011, Handbook of Behavior, Food and Nutrition. (Vol1). Springer. Wang, Q 2006, Cardiovascular Di seases: Methods and Protocols, Volume 2; Molecular Medicine. Human Press Inc. Waring, W 2006, Cardiovascular Risk Management, Elsevier Health Sciences. UK Weidner, G et al 2002, Heart Disease: Environment, Stress and Gender, IOS Press.

Statistics for managers class discussion wk9 Coursework

Statistics for managers class discussion wk9 - Coursework Example The logistic regression model involved the development of an approximated multiple regression equations. The probability prediction that a customer belongs to a particular client group was the dependent variable. On the other hand, the measures of shopping behaviors of customers, represented as x1, x2, x3, . . . , xp, were the independent variables in the regression analysis. The independent variables included the day/hour of purchase, items purchased, and amount purchased. The logistic regression analysis was useful in the sense that it helped the marketers of dunnhumby to identify the most crucial independent variables as far as predicting customer population and customer group is concerned. In view of how dunnhumby applied the multiple regression model, the model can also be used in other business scenarios. For example, an automobile company such as GM Motors can use a multiple regression analysis to identify its customer shopping behavior, season of shopping, customer preferences, and customer experiences, for a particular model of car sold at a given price. It will help the company to produce and distribute the car that most consumers prefer in the largest quantity. Besides, Amazon.com can use a multiple regression analysis to determine the items that are bought most frequently by customers, the month that most customers visit the website to check the item, and the amount of items purchased within a period. Subsequently, Amazon will develop an interface that enables all customers to preview the featured item and perhaps buy it. Fundamentally, multiple regression analysis allows the determination of the connection between multiple independent variables and one depend ent variable. However, it has the major drawback that it makes assumptions that need to be checked. In addition, multiple regression analysis uses unknown independent variables to draw conclusions and make recommendations. Overall,

Public Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Public Relations - Essay Example Next, the media channels have to be meaningful. 3rd, the media channels have to be memorable. 4th, the media channels have to be understandable. 5th, the media channels have to be believable (164). The components of how audiences receive the messages and process them are very recognizable. First, the audiences receive the messages in various forms. Next, the basic data is transmitted to the audiences in its original state or form. 3rd, the message is often filtered by journalists, editors, bloggers, and other persons; the message remains intact when received by the intended person. 4th, the audience retains the incoming messages and validates them to be either valid. 5th, the audience believes, accepts, and implements the message received. 5th, majority of the audiences change their behavior in response to the incoming messages (165). Based on Figure 7.1 on page 166, there are five public relations perspective variables in Chapter 7 that refers to communication or transmittal of the plan in paragraph form; the same variables are essential to the professionals in communication. First, the communicator must focus on community relations. Next, the communicator should focus on media relationship. 3rd, the communicator should focus on consultant relations. 4th the communicator should focus on investor communications tor communication. Lastly, all persons must equally give enough time on employee and management communication. The topic is very important because complying with the tenets of the media story gatherers (166). Based on the above discussion, each person has his or her own interpretations when an incoming message is received. Media display can make or break a person. The components are necessary parts that will increase clarity of the media message. The characteristics are important in terms of ensuring the original message is received in its unadulterated period. The public relations perspective variables

Mayan Family Structure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mayan Family Structure - Essay Example The Mayan dialect comprises 69 languages within five sub-families of Ch'ol-Tzotzil, Huastecan, Yucatecan, Chujean-Kanjobal, and Quichean-Memean sects. At the height of their prosperity they lived in cities that actually used to be religious centers and open country-sides. Their administrative system was effective and resourceful although their social and religious practices were sometimes brutal. (Mayan Family) The Mayan community is spread far and wide in pockets of different countries like Mexico, Yucatan, Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, Chiapas, Gautemala, Belize, Honduras, and El Salvador. However, they are distinct from each other in their unique way they dress and communicate. The Mayan language is spoken as the first language in some communities whereas Spanish is the first language with others. The Mayan family structure today is just about like any other regular family structure in the world. They work, play, study, live together and plan their lives as a family unit and for their descendants. They live in their own countries and proudly hold on to their native tongue although a lot of them also speak Spanish, the language commonly spoke in majority of the people in the region. However, as a community, they are backward and still need help to improve their lot in education and business. They have a rich culture and tradition to speak of. They have wonderful history and heritage to share with people from all over the globe. They have rich natural sources and abilities to compare and compete with the best in the world, and brilliant ideas and hopes to join the rest of the human community in the race for better standards of living for themselves and others. (History of the Mayan Agency) Family Structure of the ancient times Specific information about the family structure as a unit is not forthcoming probably because the Mayan language family itself is divided into five sub-families. These sub-families are dispersed in different countries in South America, viz. Gautemala, Belize, Honduras, El Salvador and South Mexico. The largest populations are found in Mexico in the states of Yucatan, Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco and Chiapas. The culture and social life of the Mayan harks back to ancient times as far back as 1500 BC. It was a prosperous and militant civilization that observed religious rituals on barbaric lines and depended on thriving economy. There was a big gap in the way of living between the ruling class and the common man. The king, his family, courtiers, priests, palace guard and servants enjoyed a better standard of living in comparison to the society at large. The Mayans practiced caste system rigidly. There was no way anyone could move over from a lower caste to upper caste or from one caste to another. The caste system much like other social and economic practices was inherited and passed on to the next generation without question. Nonetheless, the higher castes enjoyed the privilege of moving down the ladder. No one stopped the royal class from mixing with their less privileged citizens if it suited their position or tastes. There is nothing to show that such alliances were consigned to the flames or death squad. Also besides sacrificial

Postponement in Manufacturing and Supply Chain

Postponement in Manufacturing and Supply Chain In general production process, many of the end products shares some common process and some of them in the initial stages. At some specific point in the process, specialized processes or components are used to customize the work-in-process, which was a common (generic) product up to that point in the process, into the different end-products. This point is referred as point of product differentiation. Postponement refers to redesigning the process to delay the point of differentiation. The point of differentiation may occur in two stages of supply chain, first it may occur in early stage which is referred as early level of postponement and in the other case it may occur in the late in the supply chain which is referred as late level of postponement. This concept had actually been mostly used in the logistics business (Shapiro and Haskett, 1985). Even consumer products industries started using this type of concepts in their process to improve their service for customers orders. In every scenario we need to follow a special strategy for effective results. In Manufacturing and distribution of products, we need to use the following structure, which describes the process in which product variety is proliferated. Lets go through the five important steps of a product in its supply chain: Manufacturing (2) Integration (3) Customization (4) Localization (5) Packaging Here these sequence of steps matches to most of the process flow in the industries. Manufacturing: This is the initial step where the core of the product is made. Usually small numbers of products or a single generic product are made at this stage. Integration: This is the step where all the main core products are assembled with the sub assemblies. For example in the case of computers, the body will be made in the manufacturing stage and it will be assembled with the Mother board and circuits in this integration stage. Customization: This stage refers to the further assembly of the product with different accessories to form distinct product choices. For example in the case of computers, this is the stage where they insert all the necessary I/O cards, install all necessary softwares and accessory boards constitute different end product options. Localization: Here all the products are localized to suit the local requirements of different regions or countries. For example different countries may have different power supply requirements and different languages for their manuals. We can imagine that each of the product options gets raised into more different end products for different places. Packaging: This step sounds meaningful only for the few products, those requires some special kind of packing. For example in the case of Computers, monitors need to be packed properly so that they dont damage when they are in transit. Here the below figure shows the product variety proliferation tree that branches out at various stages: Diag from pg 6 http://e3associates.com/files/Article%2520-%2520Designing%2520Products%2520and%2520Processes%2520for%2520Postponement.pdf In this context of product variety structure, postponement as a strategy to defer, it can be of two types: Time Postponement and Form Postponement. Time Postponement: This refers to delaying the various product differentiation tasks as late as possible. It is something like switching from Build-to-Stock to a Build-to- order mode (Zinn 1990).One more great advantage of this time postponement implementation is related to the geographical location in which the differentiating tasks are performed. Usually these tasks will be performed at manufacturing factory, Distribution centers or distribution channels and customer sites. Here the earliest level of postponement refers to the case, when all the tasks are performed at the manufacturing factory. And the latest level of postponement refers to those, where the tasks are performed at the customer sites. This strategy is usually helpful in the case where delivery or distribution of a product is delayed until customer demand is known. This allows inventory to be reduced as it reduces the necessity to maintain inventories or stocks at distribution centers. Lets go through some case, which can give a clear idea of this strategy being used. Whirlpool, washing machine manufacturer has implemented this strategy very effectively in their US operations (Waller, et al, 2000).By one of their market research, they have found that most of the consumers dont expect their order to be delivered immediately, as most of them will be ordering for their new houses, into which they cannot move immediately. So they redesigned their supply chain in such a way that the inventories in the department stores are kept to minimum and this delayed delivery until the orders have been received. This reduces the need for cross docking to a great extent and reduces inventory and transportation costs dramatically. In overall it improves customer service and decreases stock outs. Form Postponement: This strategy delays certain stages in manufacturing process of a product until a customers order has been received (Zinn and Bowersox, 1988). This mainly aims at standardizing the upstream stages to the maximum extent. Here they follow a different kind of manufacturing strategy. At first, parts or components that are common to more than a model are used to build a generic platform. Now these semi finished items will be shipped to separate markets and specific countries or items are added when a customer order is received. Most of the computer manufacturers use this strategy in their operations. Most of the components of a computer are relatively generic and common to many markets (e.g. casing, mouse, board), while other components restricted to certain markets (e.g. power supply, differs from one country to the other) (Aviv and Federgruen, 1999).Usually demand in few places may be stable, demand in specific places may be difficult to predict. Thus using Form postponement strategy, all the basic components of a computer are assembled at a central location. As these components have longer life cycle, compared to other components, the inventory risk is reduced at this stage. Then modules are sent to different markets and country specific or high value components are inserted, once the customer orders are received. Markets leader Dell is a classic example of this. By taking up a build to order (BTO) approach, the company started maintaining very low levels of inventory (Radstaak, 1998). This strategy allowed the company to improve their customer service, as their products can be customized on demand. Place Postponement: This strategy is used to redesign the location of process, in order to postpone the product differentiation. HP had used this strategy in their operations; in this case they put off their final assembling activities and made the final product at the distribution centre. This reduces the Inventory costs and response time to the customer. This strategy can be implemented in seven different ways. The first one focuses on delaying the differentiation tasks to downstream in the final processing and manufacturing.Zinn and Bowserox 1988(manufacturing, labeling, assembly, packaging) postponement, Lee and Billingtons(1994) time postponement, Lee and Tangs (1997) operations postponement, Lees (1998) Logistics postponement and van hoeks (1999) Place postponement all deals with the same strategy. Here are some places, where these strategies are implemented successfully. European computer manufacturer implemented this strategy; they started assembling all their personal computers in their local distribution centre to the response of customers order, instead of completing in the factory. Then their focus turned in delaying the downstream movement of goods which is discussed by time and place postponement. Logistics postponement discusses about the movement of goods, which is a delay in deployment of inventory. Rover car manufacturer had implemented this strategy, which centralized the inventory from all his dealers, so that he can respond to customers quickly. If a company does not start manufacturing or assembly before customers order is received then it is existed the highest possible level of postponement. On the other hand if company is able to meet customer requirement as close as end user then it is the lowest possible level of postponement where maximum flexibility is existed. Decoupling Point http://www3.unicatt.it/unicattolica/centriricerca/cersi/allegati/wp12009.pdf Applications of Postponement Inventory reduction Better forecast accuracy Logistics Cost reduction Improved Customer service levels Inventory Cost reduction More Variety Risk minimization Procurement cost reduction Transportation cost reduction Manufacturing and procurement cost reduction Challenges in Postponement Product Modularity Ability to quantify benefits Misperception with risks, costs, benefits and general lack of understanding Competing Interest Visibility into Supply Chain Change Management Which signifies Top-down support Ability to recognize Postponement Opportunity Fundamental changes to manufacturing and logistics processes Too costly to implement Complex to implement Consumes too much of management time Too difficult to align organizationally Critical Success Factors Business process reengineering Product design standardization Enabling supply chain technology Collaboration with Customers / Suppliers Organizational design and accountability Enabling collaborative internet technology Internal cross-functional collaboration Issues relating to Postponement Conclusion Case study: When we think of postponement and their advantages, Auto industry is the one which strikes the mind first for many reasons. Firstly a car can be described as a modular system of components. This shows that there is an opportunity for commonality by producing a platform and adding modular subassemblies customized according to the customers demand. Then secondly, individually customized vehicles have higher forecast variability. Since this case shows that there are too many varieties to be forecasted accurately of each combination, there is typically disagreement on the forecast within the different divisions of a company. Finally is high inventory holding costs. It is much riskier to hold a finished vehicle in the showroom floor than to hold a partly finished one waiting for final customization because of high forecast variability for end products and high obsolescence. General Motors (GM) offers over 600 million combinations, when different combinations are considered. Because of these many options, forecasting becomes very difficult. Excess inventory on the field is evidence of this. So they started to search for a way to create variety and mass customize beyond the idea of the platforms, GM looked at software configuration as a different way to use postponement. From software view, each of the systems in a vehicle can be considered as central processing unit (CPU) made up of several electronic control units (ECUs).At present they are using 30-35 ECUs per vehicle because software is becoming essential in automobiles for many reasons. Before postponement, GM faced many problems regarding product variety proliferation and higher inventory costs of storing ECUs for individual models. Usually these ECUs come to GM in finished form with all the softwares pre-loaded. And each of this is assigned to a specific vehicle but they all looked same from outsid e. Suppliers charged GM for custom software installation which not only raised the price but also resulted in problems with repair and maintenance. Then GM decided to assume the responsibility for software configurations and postpone the installations till the latest possible point in the assembly process. Foe this to be executed, GM had to redesign both assembly process and the ECU hardware. Then in mid 1990s they achieved to install the custom softwares for individual orders at the end of the assembly process. Now the ECUs come from suppliers to GM in a generic form. After realizing that even software can be postponed, they started looking for other systems that could be delayed until purchase. Now GM offers 99 % guarantee to deliver the vehicle within one day of the projected delivery day to a dealer closer to the customer. In a study done by GM to measure the benefits of postponement, they have projected inventory cost savings to be 10-15 percent and even maintenance cost saving s. . . Here GM has taken benefits of both outsourcing and postponement. All the subassemblies are outsourced to suppliers with the comparative advantage of expertise and quality. As auto industries go with predominately build-to-order manufacturing system, their suppliers need to commit to the increase demand for customized features instead of aggregate orders.

Galileo Essay -- essays research papers fc

"Galileo was that guy who invented the telescope." This is what most people say when they think about Galileo. However, Galileo did not even invent the telescope; he only made improvements to it so it could be used for astronomy. Galileo did use it to make many important discoveries about astronomy, though; many of these discoveries helped to prove that the sun was the center of the galaxy. Galileo also made many important contributions to Physics; he discovered that the path of a projectile was a parabola, that objects do not fall with speeds proportional to their weight, and much more. For these discoveries, Galileo is often referred to as the founder of modern experimental science. Galileo Galilei was born in Pisa, Italy on February 15, 1564. Until he was about 10 years old, Galileo lived in Pisa; in 1574 the family moved to Florence where Galileo started his education at Vallombroso, a nearby monastery. In 1581, Galileo went to the University of Pisa to study medicine, the field his father wanted him to peruse. While at the University of Pisa, Galileo discovered his interest in Physics and Mathematics; he switched his major from medicine to mathematics. In 1585, he decided to leave the university without a degree to pursue a job as a teacher. He spend four years looking for a job; during this time, he tutored privately and wrote on some discoveries that he had made. In 1589, Galileo was given the job of professor of Mathematics at the University of Pisa. His contract was not renewed in 1592, but received another job at the University of Padua as the chair of Mathematics; his main duties were to teach Geometry and Astrology. Galileo taught at the university for eighteen years. Galileo made many important discoveries from the time he was born to when he left the University of Padua, 1564-1610. While attending the University of Pisa, 1584, Galileo discovered the principle of isochronism. Isochronism showed that the period of a pendulum remains the same no matter what the amplitude is. Galileo was said to have discovered this while watching a chandelier swing in the cathedral next to the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Galileo proved the isochronism of a pendulum in 1602. He later used his discovery to design a clock that used pendulums. While Galileo was looking for a job after he left the University of Pisa, 1856, he invented the hydrostatic balance. Thi... ...eo made many important discoveries for the field of Physics; he opened the way for scientists to combined Mathematic and Physics. He also proved that the sun was the center of the galaxy. Galileo deserved to be called the founder of modern experimental science. Bibliography Dunn, Travis. Galileo Biography. Http:/es.rice.edu/ES/ humsoc/Galileo/index.html. 23 January 1996. Field, J.V. Galileo Galilei. http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/-history/Mathematicians/Galileo.html. August 1995. "Galileo Got it Wrong." New Scientist. 4 June 1987, p. 36. MacKeith, Bill. "Galileo Galilei." The Classical Scientists. Southside Ltd. Edinburgh, England. 1989. vol. 15, pp. 25-44. O'Malley, Charles D. "Galileo." The New Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. Chicago, Illinois. 1989. vol. 19, pp. 640-642. Stillman, Drake. The Life of Galileo Galilei. http://www. owlnet.rice.edu/-jessdave/Galileo2.html. 1980. Stillman, Drake. "Galileo." Microsoft Encarta. Copyright 1994 Microsoft Corp. Copyright 1994 Funk & Wagnalls Corp. Stillman, Drake. "Galileo." The World Book Encyclopedia. World Book Inc. London, England. 1995. vol. 8, pp. 11-12.

Free Speech in the Digital World Under Threat?

COMMENTARY Free Speech in the Digital World under Threat? Kirsty Hughes We are at a moment where the digital world can go either way – it can become a space of genuine free expression, one enjoyed by ever larger numbers of people or it can become a controlled and monitored space. Like any battle for free speech and fundamental rights, governments and other major players – in this case big web companies and internet service providers – must be held to account and challenged to defend our rights. T e digital world continues to open up huge opportunities for communication, interaction, sharing views and exchanging information across and within borders. It is even rather dated to say we are all our own publishers now, we can all be citizen journalists – though we are and can be. And as millions more people in the next couple of years join that digital world as the price of smart phones fall, the digital revolution is surely not over. Or is it? Are Governments Hardwired to Snoop and Censor? Kirsty Hughes ([email  protected] om) is with the Index on Censorship, London, United Kingdom. The ability of both governments and big corporations to monitor the internet, to gather data on us all, to determine what we can and cannot do or see on the web is another key but less welcome part of our digital world. And censorship and surveillance of digital communications is on the rise – not only in countries such as Iran, China and Russia, but also in India, the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States (US). While China’s â€Å"great ? ewall† and army of snoopers does its best to block a whole gamut of politically-sensitive topics and debates – sensitive that is to China’s authoritarian elites – the democratic world is increasingly looking at using the technological opportunities out there, either to block content, or to monitor their own citizens. Earlier this year, Indian authorities came top in Googleâ₠¬â„¢s transparency report – which shows government requests to Google to remove material and how many Google complied with – with the largest number of requests for Google to take down posts not backed by court orders.The US and Brazil had the highest number of takedown demands backed by court orders, while in Twitter’s similar transparency report, the US was the number one country demanding information on users. Google and Twitter also go along with many but not all of the requests NovemBER 17, 2012 they receive – private companies playing a crucial role in determining the extent of our free speech and our privacy. Meanwhile in the UK, a draft Communications Data Bill currently being scrutinised in Parliament, would, if it became law, lead to monitoring and retention of a vast array of digital data across the entire population.From tracking who our emails go to or come from, likewise our phone calls, to storing the data our mobiles give up on our locatio ns or our web searches, showing what topics we are investigating, the draft UK Bill certainly deserves its popular name â€Å"a snooper’s charter†. Iran is also aiming to develop its own intranet that would operate in a way detached from the wider world-wide web, and so be much easier to control by state authorities. But how can India or the UK or US stand up to Iran and pressure them not to cut their citizens off from the wider digital world, if they are not fully respecting basic rights of their own citizens online?What Is Driving the Urge to Control? Freedom of expression is a fundamental right – and without it democracies cannot function and power cannot be held to account. So why are so many governments increasingly looking at control of our digital lives? There are two overlapping justi? cations at the heart of this. Do we need protecting from being offended? Attempts to justify censorship often appeal to the protection of public order, or public morals, t ackling hate speech, or promoting national security.But unless highly limited, such censorship rapidly intrudes on open democratic debate, serious discussion, on art and entertainment, on all our communication and interaction. In the UK, a recent spate of cases indicate a deeply worrying trend towards criminalising speech – individuals have received jail sentences or community service orders for publishing sick or bad jokes online or on Twitter (or in one case for strong anti-police sentiments on a t-shirt). And while the â€Å"Innocence of Muslims† video was highly offensive to some (though not all had seen it) is it really vol xlviI no 46EPW Economic & Political Weekly 18 COMMENTARY the job of governments to decide what is offensive or not? And if they do, and all governments between them censor all that is offensive on the web, then there will be very little left for us all to read or debate or write. We will end up in the opposite of a digital world – in a c ontrolled and fragmented set of con? ned digital spaces. The other main justi? cation governments use for controlling the digital world is in order to justify monitoring and surveillance.We need it to tackle crime and terror, the authorities say with great urgency – the criminals are technologically leaps and bounds ahead of us. But do democracies really need to monitor and survey their entire populations just because digital technology makes it easy to do? Surely tackling crime needs a focused, targeted, intelligent approach – not a population-wide sledgehammer. And if democracies do mimic the mass snooping behaviour of the East German Stasi, or of today’s China or Iran, then they will be undermining their own democratic systems.Free speech does not prevail where everything is being monitored, or collected, or stored so one day it may be checked on. And while governments need to be challenged not to censor and monitor and undermine the global digital space we s hare, private companies have become an increasingly important part of the equation – but one less easily held to account. Facebook’s users hit the one billion mark this autumn. But not only does Facebook make a lot of money out of the private and public information that the one billion share on its pages, it also sets the rules for the conversations in its space.Fair enough you may say, so do plenty of clubs or newspapers or societies. But telephone operators do not set rules of what you can and cannot say on the phone; cafes do not ask you to sign up to what you can and cannot say at the door. And as Twitter, Google and others respond to governments’ requests to take material down – or stand up to governments (as they sometimes do) and defend what has been posted – we are witnessing a major privatisation of censorship in the digital world. Can We Defend the Digital Revolution?So have we lost the digital revolution while it is still in its infancy? Not necessarily. Some big web companies are issuing transparency reports, as Google and Twitter do, so we can all see and judge what they as companies are doing – though we cannot get that picture yet for any individual country. This is an important but partial step. Beyond this, some of the big companies, as well as many democratic governments, have made clear statements supporting an open, free digital space that respects human rights including the right to free expression.And the European Union (EU) and US are currently standing up to a push from China and Russia for top-down regulation of the internet. The next summit where this battle will continue is the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) meeting in Dubai in early December. Which way will India, or Brazil, or South Africa go at that summit – with the US and EU or with China and Russia? We are at a moment where the digital world can go either way – it can become a space of genuine free expression , one enjoyed by ever larger numbers of people, or it can become a controlled and monitored space.Like any battle for free speech and fundamental rights, governments and other major players – in this case big web companies and internet service providers – must be held to account and challenged to defend our rights. If democracies like India, the EU, the US or Brazil do not defend free speech in the digital world, and hold back from the temptation of censorship and surveillance almost at the click of a mouse, then we are on a dangerously slippery slope. It is a moment to stand up and defend our digital freedoms – for if we do not, who will?N EW The Adivasi Question Edited By INDRA MUNSHI Depletion and destruction of forests have eroded the already fragile survival base of adivasis across the country, displacing an alarmingly large number of adivasis to make way for development projects. Many have been forced to migrate to other rural areas or cities in search of work, leading to systematic alienation. This volume situates the issues concerning the adivasis in a historical context while discussing the challenges they face today.The introduction examines how the loss of land and livelihood began under the British administration, making the adivasis dependent on the landlord-moneylender-trader nexus for their survival. The articles, drawn from writings of almost four decades in EPW, discuss questions of community rights and ownership, management of forests, the state’s rehabilitation policies, and the Forest Rights Act and its implications. It presents diverse perspectives in the form of case studies specific to different regions and provides valuable analytical insights.Authors: Ramachandra Guha †¢ Sanjeeva Kumar †¢ Ashok K Upadhyaya †¢ E Selvarajan †¢ Nitya Rao †¢ B B Mohanty †¢ Brian Lobo Pp xi + 408 Rs 695 ISBN 978-81-250-4716-2 2012 †¢ K Balagopal †¢ Sohel Firdos †¢ Pankaj Sekhsaria â₠¬ ¢ DN †¢ Judy Whitehead †¢ Sagari R Ramdas †¢ Neela Mukherjee †¢ Mathew Areeparampil †¢ Asmita Kabra †¢ Renu Modi †¢ M Gopinath Reddy, K Anil Kumar, P Trinadha Rao, Oliver Springate-Baginski †¢ Indra Munshi †¢ Jyothis Sathyapalan †¢ Mahesh Rangarajan †¢ Madhav Gadgil †¢ Dev Nathan, Govind Kelkar †¢ Emmanuel D’Silva, B Nagnath †¢ Amita Baviskar ww. orientblackswan. com Mumbai †¢ Chennai †¢ New Delhi †¢ Kolkata †¢ Bangalore †¢ Bhubaneshwar †¢ Ernakulam †¢ Guwahati †¢ Jaipur †¢ Lucknow †¢ Patna †¢ Chandigarh †¢ Hyderabad Contact: [email  protected] com Economic & Political Weekly EPW Orient Blackswan Pvt Ltd NovemBER 17, 2012 vol xlviI no 46 19

The development of social theory (Soc 2001) goffman and foucault The WritePass Journal

The development of social theory (Soc 2001) goffman and foucault Introduction The development of social theory (Soc 2001) goffman and foucault Introduction  ConclusionRelated Introduction Social theory has developed from a classical approach to a more modern sociological approach, characterised by a rise of functionalism and the introduction of interpretive sociology. Swingewood (2000) states that the heart of sociological thought is.. to redefine concepts and to rediscover them (Swingewood, 2000:9).  Both Goffman and Foucault have contributed to the development of social theory and this essay will critically compare their influence in particular focusing on their analysis of institutions, power and their use of research methods.  In order to understand how social order was possible, Goffman  analysed the ways in which humans are constituted in face-to-face interactions, Foucault examined society through practises and local circumstance, he didnt analyse the subject, but the embodied subject.   Goffman and Foucault are distant in some aspects, for instance in their research methods and approaches on power but are similar in the more important aspects such as t heir analysis of experts and expert judgement within  institutions.  This essay will also compare the influence of other theorists in the development of their  theoretical approaches.    One of the main problems from classical sociology is the inadequate notion of self.   The dominant trend of late nineteenth-century and early twentieth century social theory was towards developing a concept of action.   None of the major sociologists constructed an adequate notion of self. The self was defined anonymously as a disembodied actor assimilating norms and producing meanings in relation to the wider,  macrosociological  system   (Swingewood, 2000:165). Only Simmels sociology with its basis in sociation and interaction approached an adequate theory of the living, active social subject.   Mead later developed Simmels theory of the self,   he argued Human society as we know it, could not exist without minds and selves (Mead, 1972:227).   He studied the social interaction process and concluded that individuals are constructed over time due to how they interact with others.   He argues, a self only exists, when it interacts with itself and the other selves of the community (Mead, 1934:138).   Blumer (1937) extended many of Meads ideas to refer to action as Mead failed to explain how meanings were actually produced.   Blumer attempted to analyse the situational and contextual basis of action in relation to the development of the self, outlining in  Symbolic Interactionism  that meaning.. arises through the ways individuals interact with each other as they utilise and interpret the symbolic forms (Blumer 1969).   Goffmans work is sometimes viewed within the context of symbolic interactionism (Baret 1998) due to the fact he focuses on the interaction patterns between individuals and their ability to reflect on their actions and therefore influence the environment.   Goffmans interpretive perspective focuses on the everyday interactions between individuals and the subjective meanings behind these actions   Rawls (1987). believes that Goffmans analysis offers a solution to the agency and structure debate with the idea of an inte raction order which is constitutive of self and at the same time places demands on social structure (Rawls, 1987:136). However, Foucault rejects the search for a true self.   Rather than offering an account of the real self that is being  regulated  as in Goffmans account of the performing self, Foucault is interested in how we come to think, feel and act as certain kinds of selves and he wishes to examine the effects of this behaviour. A new social theory has emerged since the 1950s which looks at human society as an organised system of relation, governed by laws and is self-regulated.   It defines reality in terms of the relations between elements, not in terms of objectively existing things and social facts.   Foucault examines this concept and takes a stance mid-way between structuralism and post structuralism.   Although he claims, I have never been a structuralist (Swingewood 2000:194).   However he shares the structuralists dismissal of theories based on individual choices and the effects of human action.   Yet his work was primarily about the self.   Foucault was concerned with the status and role of the human subject, the concept of human beings in history and in the human sciences.   Foucault shares with the structuralists a desire to displace the human subject and its consciousness from the centre of  theoretical concern. Foucault explores how meanings are temporarily stabilised or  regulated  into a discourse.   This  ordering  of  meaning is achieved through the operation of power in social practice.   For Foucault discourse unites both language and practice and is effectively a form of power.   Foucault believes discourse gives meaning to material objects and social practises and therefore produces knowledge through language.   Foucault outlines in  The Archaeology of Knowledge  the relations between knowledge and power, power and knowledge directly imply one another there is no power relation.. without a field of knowledge (Foucault 1979:100).   By outlining this Foucault shows that truth does not exist, outside power. Goffman too was concerned with discourse for instance in 1981 Goffman introduced the concept footing which is a similar concept to an interactive frame which became rather influential in discourse analysis. Goffman was also concerned with concrete conversation; he noted the social exchanges between individuals not only the words but also the tone, body language and accent. Similar to Foucault, Goffman  recognised the influence of the structure of the social world in how we interact, however he places greater emphasis on the creative role of the agent in producing and sustaining the norms and values  underpinning  the social world (Swingewood 2000).   Goffman suggests in  The Presentation of Self  that when an individual appears before others his actions will influence the definition of the situation which they come to have (Goffman, 1969:5). Goffman developed a notion of the individual as a dramaturgical actor, viewing social life as a dramatic performance.   He suggest ed that individuals spent much of their time framing their true self from the view of other people.   Goffman believes that behaviour may change from place to place, but the ways in which it changes as well as the situations for which it changes, are usually constant (Goffman, 1969:68).   He feels that individuals behaviour may change when the structure of situation changes, due to different rules which govern how they interact with others.   Goffman looks at the rules within institutions, outlined in his work Asylums  where he studied the experiences of inmates in a mental institution.   He found that patients view of self was modified by their experience within the institiution   (Goffman, 1969:78).   Similarly  Foucault had a concept of rules within a social system, however unlike Goffman he analysed the concept of rules and interactions in terms of a prison institution and how these institutions shape and regulate individual behaviour. (Swingewood 2000)   He fo und that prisons produced distinctive modern forms of identity because individuals came to think of themselves in certain ways due to constant surveillance and monitoring (Foucault 1980:155). These studies aimed to show that even in  situations  of apparently irrational behaviour  there are rules and order. Both Goffman and Foucault questioned the humaneness of therapeutic institutions.   To Goffman, knowledge developed at mental asylums did not serve the interests of patients, instead the institution itself created deviant behaviour in the inmates and then used this to control them   (Goffman 1961:104). He emphasised in  Asylums  how the organisation  structure  and dominant ideologies of the mental hospital shaped the self of the mental patient through the mortification process.   He argued that mental patients suffered not from mental illnesss but from contingencies by which term he meant the actions of others (Goffman 1961:135). In  Asylums,  It is recognised that Goffman uses the word inmates to describe both the staff and patients.   This is a word we use to describe those who have been confined to prison, similar to Foucaults analysis.  Goffman suggests that there are basic similarities between many of the social processes which occur in other institutions, so his study was widened to include organisations which share certain characteristics with mental hospitals such as prisons.   He refers to these institutions as Total institutions (Goffman 1961:147). Foucaults study therefore compliments Goffmans, as he analyses interactions within a prison institution and seeks to show how those subject to the unremitting discipline are pressured into conforming to the external demands placed upon them.   Foucault resurrected Jeremy Benthams prison design, the panopticon and described it as a mecahnism that coerces by means of observation. In  discipline and punish, he writes one sees everything without ever being seen (Foucault, 1995:202).   He claimed that visibility in the prison constituted people as individuals who came to  regulate  their own behaviour.   Foucault details how, within the walls of the prison, pervasive and penetrating regimes for monitoring the conduct of inmates aims to induce a form of reflexive self monitoring of conduct. Foucault asserted, he who is subjected to a field of visibility..becomes the principle of his own subjection (Foucault, 1975:223).   Foucaults study is similar to Pat Barkers  Regenerati on Trilogy  where she describes how prisoners modify their behaviour due to believing they are being observed by an eye in the wall  (Carter and Grieco 2000).  Prisoners therefore self-disciplined themselves which is similar to what Foucault found. Similarly to Goffmans analysis of mental institutions, Foucault asserted that the prison institution forced individuals identity to change as the inmates thoughts of themselves changed.   Goffman illustrates this through admission procedures to total institutions, this involves the removal of many items from their identity.   Goffman gives examples of admission procedures of prisons.   In  Asylums, he writes how clothes are replaced by prison uniforms and appearance is changed by prison haircuts (Goffman, 1961:134).   Goffman argues that changes in these aspects are specifically stating that they are no longer the person they were (Goffman, 1961:135).   Admission procedures and future interaction with total institutions not only tend to change, but also to mortify the self. Goffman writes The inmate is systematically, if often unintentionally  mortified for instance, searched and fingerprinted (Goffman 1961:134).   Such experiences tend to break down the inmates forme r self-concept.   The self is then slowly rebuilt, partly by means of rewards and punishments administered by those in authority.   Goffman gives and example of a privilege within a prison, extra hours recreation (Goffman, 1961:135). However for Foucault, the similarity lies in the fact that each of these institutions is a place for experiments in the control of individuals and they may learn from experiments conducted elsewhere and techniques of discipline and surveillance invented elsewhere.   For Foucault the notion of a total institution is too separate from the outside world.   The techniques used in asylums or prisons can be understood only by the linkage of those institutions with practises and discourses external to them and to the history of the borrowing and deployment of disciplinary techniques and techniques of the self (Jordan, 2003:239). Both theorists are interested in the  mortification process through social control as well as the stigmatised body selves.   In  Stigma Goffman states, Persons with a stigma are considered less than fully human and subject to all manner of discrimination which reduces their life chances (Goffman, 1986:102).   He explained that persons with a particular stigma tended to share similar experiences and chances in conception of self, which he termed the moral career (Goffman, 1986:102).   Stigma is also evident in Foucaults work, due to inmates identity changing through the mortification process which strips inmates of the various supports which helped to maintain their former self-concepts, their identity is also changed through constant surveillance which results in the inmate being their own overseer and exercising this surveillance over and against themselves (Foucault, 1980:155).   Inmates in both institutions are therefore not prepared for life on the outside once theyre released, they have accepted the institutions definition of themselves and are stigmatised, this results in the inmates being treated as outsiders. Foucault offers a history of the present in which power and knowledge intersect and understandings of ourselves are produced.   Power and knowledge operate in mutually generative fashion and are not reducible to each other.   Foucault explained that disciplinary power shaped and trained the body (Foucault, 1975:294).   He gave an example at Mettray Colony for juvenile delinquents where the combination of observation and exercise made training an instrument of perpetual assessment (Foucault, 1975:295). The example of Mettray illustrated Foucaults argument that subjectivity is produced around, on, within the body by the working of a correctional mode of power (Valier, 2002:154).   This conception assumed a symbiotic relationship of power and knowledge which required a direct hold on the body.   However Foucaults studies departed from the perspective of standpoint feminists, who held that power was wielded by a particular group.   Smart pointed out, Foucault demonstrated mor e interest in how the mechanisms of power worked than in who had power (Smart 1989).   Indeed, Foucault stated that the panopticon was a machine that any random individual could operate (Valier, 2002: 155). He argued in  Discipline and Punish  that power was not a possession or a property but should be understood to be a strategy (Foucault, 1975:296). This is what might be called a shift from a substantive to a relational concept of power.   Instead of focussing on the primary oppression of women or the working class, Foucault thought it important to theorise the ways in which every inhabitant of modern societies was subjected to certain forms of subjection (Valier, 2002:155). Foucault therefore focused on power relations instead of the subjects. Critics of Foucault objected what in his focus on the workings of power there seemed to be no space left for resistance.   However in  The Will to Knowledge  Foucault clarified his position in stating that resistances were inscribed in power as an irreducible opposite (Foucault 1976:96).   Nevertheless, Lois Mcnay stated that Foucaults emphasis of a corporeally  centred  disciplinary power produced a conception of  subjectivity  that was impoverished† (Mcnay, 1994:122). In contrast to this, Goffmans notion of power is more limited, although he was interested in questions of power he tended to approach this topic as a neutral observer rather than a witness. Several critics have faulted Goffman for his failure to articulate the structures of power that determine every experience.   In  The Coming Crises  Gouldner argues that Goffman pays no attention to power and his microsociology fails to explain how power effects the  individuals  abilities to present selves  effectively (Gouldner, 1974:347). In addition to this May Rogers takes up the critique in  Goffman on power, hierarchy and status  that Goffmans analysis is poor in understanding power relationships.   Roger argues that power relationships are present, but are treated almost entirely implicitly. Individuals use power to affect the behaviour of other actors in society, by the use of  resources (Rogers 1981).   According to Rogers, it appears that for Goffman, Power is a fo rm of combination between people who have minimal stigma against others who are unable to accept the definition of the situation (Rogers, 1959:30). Goffman studies the interactions between individuals through specific microanalysis, following Durkheims social theory, he tries to show how the sort of large scale phenomena Durkheim analysed is produced and reproduced in interpersonal interaction.   Although Goffman provides insights into the working of places where individuals experience problems, it  does not reflect the macro-institutional order, for instance Goffman gives little consideration to the inmates experiences in the outside world before they entered the total institution.   The possible significance of this omission can be seen from John Irwins study of prison life in California, Irwin argues that an understanding of particular inmates responses to imprisonment requires a knowledge of their pre-prison experiences. Irwin suggest that this may have important influences on modes of adaption within a total institution (Irwin 1980).   Goffman states in his essay  The Interaction Order,  that his preferred metho d of study is microanalysis (Goffman 1983:2).  Some theorists suggest links between the apparent micro-sociology,  ethnomethodology  and  Goffmans interaction order. Swingewood (2000) argues that ethnomethodology provided an empirical basis for Goffmans interaction order and shares many features in common with his  theoretical  approach, for instance both emphasise how social order and predictability are skilful accomplishments of the actor involved.   Foucaults  theoretical approach can be exemplary for ethnomethodological investigators as it clearly identifies how material architectures, machineries, bodily techniques and disciplinary routines make up coherent phenomenal fields (Lynch, 1997:131).  Ã‚  Foucault who was not a micro-sociologist did however obtain an interest in micro-processes such as the micro physics of power, power  exercised  in interaction and the  resistance  to power that also takes place continuously in interactions and micro-environ ments (Garner 2009:147). Swingewood (2000) argues Foucault believed that all totalising theories such as Marxism reduce the  autonomy  of the micrological elements.   Foucault suggests the term archaeology to describe a method of analysing micro elements and the concept of genealogy to rediscover all micro-logical forces.   Foucault does this as he feels its essential to reactivate local, minor knowledges (Swingewood, 2000:195).   Foucault initiated the concept genealogy in order to investigate the historical events that led people to understand themselves in particular ways.    However,  Reminiscent of Goffmans studies its apparent that Goffman included nothing about history in relation to the social practices he described or about the history of the total institution. Nevertheless to understand how such institutions came to exist, one can turn to Foucaults archaeologies and genaelogies.   Although Hacking (2004) found they are not completely accurate historical ana lyses and tend to over-generalise on French examples.   For instance Hacking states, ‘the great mutations of Foucaults first books coincide under different names, with Descartes and the French Revolution, neither of which is noticeably mentioned’ (Hacking, 2004). Goffman and Foucault both contribute to our understanding of how society functions, although writing from a different theoretical perspective they both supplement each other; Goffman analysed the ways in which human roles are constituted in face-to-face interactions within a total institution and how patterns of normality and deviance work on individual agents.   Foucaults archaeologies established the preconditions for and the mutations between successive institutional forms.    Due to their different theoretical approaches, there are some conflicting views, for instance Goffman developed a theory of self that brackets institutions and looks only at social action as strategic conduct.   In contrast to Foucault, Goffman doesnt develop an account of history or  structured  transformation.   However in contrast to Goffman, Foucault erased the subject and attempts to de-centre the subject,  Foucault depicted the subject as essentially passive and unable to act in a way tha t would have an effect on society.  Ã‚  However I believe that both  are essential in understanding the making of individuals  (Giddens 1979). offers the idea of Foucault and Goffman developing the theory of structuration which suggests that rather than looking at self and society as a dualism, they should look at them as a duality of structure, constantly being stucturated in the interactions between the individual and society (Giddens, 1979:56).  Although the theoretical approaches of Goffman and Foucault differ I believe that their  approaches  on both structure and agency are complementary ways of viewing the social world and if they were brought together, a theory such as Giddens suggested could be produced and work successfully.   Conclusion I feel goffmans approach is bottom up because he starts with individual face-to-face exchanges and develops an account of how such exchanges constitute lives, I feel Foucaults approach is top down because he starts with a mass of sentences at a time, dissociated from the human beings who spoke them and used them as the data upon which to characterise a system that determines discourse and action.